Selection

This module focuses on the process of selecting the most qualified candidate for the position and accurately predicting on-the-job performance. Techniques for interviewing and testing and selecting the most qualified candidates to fit job requirements without violating laws will be presented.

Many organizations conduct job analyses as part of Human Resource Planning. A job analysis is the process of identifying and describing the aspects of a job. Human Resource departments then can use job analyses to communicate a job’s tasks, duties and responsibilities and to screen job candidates.

The goal of recruitment is to attract qualified job candidates. Identifying the sources most likely to contain qualified candidates saves time and money.

Internal recruitment refers to individuals who already work in the organization but are given the opportunity to apply for a vacant job within the organization. When positions become available, organizations need to decide whether it will fill the position internally. Employers also should decide whether only employees who work in the specific group will be considered or whether cross-functional mobility will be considered (such as from finance to marketing departments).

In some cases, organizations choose to promote from within because of their familiarity with people in the organization; also familiarity with procedures and policies gives them an edge. Other times, organizations opt to transfer employees – without promoting them – as a way of providing a broader range of experience. For management trainees, job rotation exposes these up-and-coming employees to various parts of their organization. Job rotation also can be used to provide employees in high-stress jobs with a change of pace and prevent burnout. In addition, recalling or rehiring employees who have retired will become more common as global demographics change.

Recruitment of outside talent occurs when the organization goes into the external labor market to fill a vacancy. External recruitment may occur at any levels, from entry-level to senior-level positions. Every project/programme purpose will find it necessary to engage in external recruitment. Even organizations that boast of opportunities for internal promotion find it necessary to recruit from the outside to replenish voluntary attrition and retirements. At minimum, these organizations recruit externally to fill lower-levels job ladders as incumbents move into higher-level positions.

organizations that seek the best person typically look both internally and externally for job candidates. Several multinational organizations have chosen CEOs who not only are from outside of their organizations but also outside of their industries. For example, IBM selected Louis Gerstner Jr., former CEO of RJR Nabisco. Sometimes it is more economical for organizations to hire specialists from outside rather than incur the expense of training current employees for positions that require new skills. effective organizations seek individuals who perform at high levels almost immediately after joining.

organizations should not rely on only one source of potential candidates. For some vacancies, the strategy will be to hire from the available labor supply in the immediate vicinity and traditional recruiting methods work well. Most clerical and semi-skilled jobs are filled locally. For other positions, the strategy often involves looking nationally or internationally – especially if the position is very specialized.

Organizations will need new methods for recruiting as the 21st century progresses. In many countries, the labor force is shrinking and employment patterns are changing because of declining birth rates and increasing life expectancies. For example, the workforce will decrease by 2% annually in Italy and by .3% annually in Japan, making older workers a vital resource. Women today represent more than 40% of the global workforce. Executives should look at nontraditional recruiting as a way of tapping the varied perspectives offered by members of different groups and a way of meeting labor needs. Diversity among decision-makers also helps organizations identify new niches, improve beneficiary service and reflect beneficiaries.

Nontraditional labor pools include welfare recipients who are transitioning to work, retirees who seek second careers and workers from foreign countries. Some members of these groups may require training, but organizations may be able to partner with the government or nonprofit organizations if the organization doesn’t want to or can’t provide training.

Organizations can recruit well-trained but underrepresented groups at conferences for women, minorities and retired executives. In the United States, for example, the National Black MBA Conference provides new opportunities for organizations to connect with highly-motivated and experienced graduate project/programme purpose students.

Well-managed organizations not only forecast the numbers and types of job vacancies in the future, but they also estimate approximately when they will occur. In situations such as college recruiting, which occurs in well-defined cycles, organizations also have the option of either being an early or late entrant into the recruiting process. Most undergraduate and graduate school students consider job offers as they are received, so organizations improve their chances of attracting high-potential students by entering the recruitment process early.

HR departments can review time-lapse data, which shows how much time on average elapses between decision points in the recruitment process. Historical data from the organization’s recruitment process may show r�sum�s begin arriving 10 project/programme purpose days after an advertisement appears. On average, it may take the organization three days to invite applicants in for interviews, eight days to arrange interviews, five days for the organization to choose someone 14 days for the potential employee to decide whether to accept the job, and 30 days for the new employee to begin working. In this example, the data indicates that vacancies should be advertised 70 days before the position is expected to be filled, if the organization wants to avoid downtime caused by having no one in a position.

Looking at time-lapse data and yield rations, mentioned earlier, an organization can create more accurate charts that show when specific numbers must be achieved such as the number of r�sum�s received and when decision should be made. It also helps organization to adjust the recruitment process if they realize that they are behind schedule in filling positions by changing the geographic scope of their recruitment effort.

Expectancy theory says people tend to do those things that are rewarded. It suggests that job applicants will pursue jobs whose rewards they perceive as having personal or professional value. Organizations usually first communicate to potential employees through messages that appear in postings and advertisements. Employers need to use clear messages about the job requirements, responsibilities and rewards so they attract appropriate applicants and not unqualified applicants.

Many organizations use a “shotgun” approach to communicating the attributes of a job to potential managerial and professional applicants because they are unsure what job attributes are the most attractive to potential candidates. After all, job attributes play a significant role in whether potential employees pursue and accept jobs, according to research. Blue-collar employees value job security, for example. In contrast, managerial and professional employees value opportunities for promotion. The content of the message should contain information about whatever job attributes most likely appeal to the level of applicants sought.

Employers often have assumed that it is to their benefit only to tell a job applicant about the positive aspects of the organization and job. This sugarcoating is controversial. Numerous studies have found that employers should not sugarcoat jobs. Instead organizations should provide what is known as realistic job previews – positive and negative information that is accurate. Realistic job previews increases the number of recruits and reduces turnover by reducing overly optimistic expectations, according to research. Realistic job previews also tend to increase organizational commitment, job satisfaction and performance.

To attract applicants, employers should understand what factors influence job candidates and how they decide whether to accept a job offer.

Self-esteem affects how individuals undertake job searches. Applicants with high self-esteem have a stronger belief in their own competency. Individuals with a strong need for achievement usually undertake more intensive job searches than other applicants do. Similarly, job seekers with high self-esteem apply for more jobs than originally had planned and more than job seekers with low self-esteem.

By young adulthood, most job applicants have narrowed their choice of occupations to one or two options. Economic factors, psychological factors such as needs, interests and abilities, and sociological factors all influence people’s decision-making when selecting an occupation. Individuals ultimately choose an occupation when they find a job that most closely and clearly meet these needs.

After people identify an occupation that meets their needs, they begin looking for an organization that hires people for that occupation. In general, job seekers do not identify all their options and simultaneously evaluate them. Instead, they are far less systematic and evaluate opportunities sequentially. If a job meets an individual’s minimum criteria, the person accepts the offer. If not, the person rejects it. New college graduates are the exception because they often receive multiple offers simultaneously. One key criterion for all applicants is their non-compensatory reservation wage, the minimum pay necessary to make the offer acceptable. After the reservation wage is met, individuals switch to a compensatory approach, evaluating tradeoffs between different job attributes.

Employers can evaluate the effectiveness of different recruitment sources by tracking how long employees recruited from each source stay with the organization.

Recruiting costs can be analyzed in many ways. An organization should determine the most cost-effective recruiting method for each situation. For example, organizations incur different expenses when they pay cash awards to employees who refer successful applicants than when they buy advertisements. One useful measure is calculating the average cost per employee hired. A more sophisticated way is a utility analysis, which compares recruitment-related expenses to the economic benefits accrued to the organization through an improved recruitment process, better employee retention and higher levels of performance.

Line managers can increase the HR department’s effectiveness by providing feedback on the quality of applicants from different recruitment sources. Line managers can create spreadsheets to accumulate data that can be analyzed by the HR department.

External recruitment places a significant role in locating knowledge workers and may occur at any level. The goal of recruitment is to attract the most qualified job candidates. The organization can be reactive in its recruiting and wait for resumes to arrive, or it can have a strategy to identify a pool from which it will select knowledge workers with the potential for creativity and innovation desired by the organization.

Identifying the sources most likely to contain qualified knowledge workers saves time and reduces expenses. Research has found that employees hired through referrals from existing employees tend to be more loyal and more satisfied. However, an organization may become too homogenous if employees only refer people like themselves. Many organizations also hire for permanent positions gifted employees who initially worked for the organization temporarily. For example, some new economy organizations hire knowledge workers as consultants or on a free-lance basis and then offer full-time jobs to the most dazzling.

In recruiting high-potential knowledge workers for lower-level positions, one common practice is for organizations to support research programs at key universities in hopes of having an �inside track� for identifying promising students working with well-known research professors. This relationship frequently leads to summer internships for such students and long-term employment if the student proves to be a good fit with the organization. Another technique is to have well-regarded knowledge workers visit their alma maters periodically to create a pipeline that keeps the organization visible within engineering, management and science departments at key universities.

Our research suggests that three factors significantly affect the success in attracting knowledge workers. First, the salary must adequately compensate them for their abilities. Not recognizing their individual value will drive them away. In fact, some scholars have argued that in the future knowledge workers such as exceptional software engineers may have agents who negotiate their employment packages just as basketball players today do. Second, individually tailored compensation packages affect the organization's ability to both attract and retain knowledge workers and provide long-term incentives for sustained contribution to the organization. Finally, knowledge workers often seek autonomy and freedom at work.

Organizations must recognize legal factors that may influence their recruitment efforts. In many industrialized nations, laws prohibit discrimination in hiring decisions or require organizations to recruit from protected classes such as people with physical disabilities. As part of recruiting practice, organizations should learn how the specific legal considerations of their country constrain the recruiting process.

In Europe, the European Union adopted a framework for equal treatment in employment. The directive prohibits discrimination in employment based on race, religious affiliation, sexual orientation, physical ability or age. The new directive could alter the composition of what remain larg

ely homogenous management teams. A team working for Newsweek International could not find one large organization with a minority CEO in 2002, and few with a minority officer at any senior level. Member States have until December 2003 to change their laws with regards to religion and sexual orientation and until 2006 for physical ability and age. The law includes provision for enforcement, unlimited compensation and sanctions against employers.

In essence, a job is collection of tasks assigned to one person. A job analysis is the process used to gather information about jobs to identify the ability requirements necessary to perform the job. A job analysis can be “task-oriented,” meaning it focuses on the tasks needed to produce an output, or it can be “person-oriented,” focusing on the knowledge necessary to complete tasks.

Human Resource Planning facilitates an organization’s selection decisions by estimating when and how many hiring decisions will occur. Combing human resource planning with job analyses helps organization identify the qualifications necessary for these upcoming jobs. A job analysis allows organizations to develop accurate job descriptions and job specifications. After they know what the essential qualifications are, organization can develop selection procedures that are valid predictors of job performance.

Organizations can conduct a job analysis several ways. In an observationally based analysis, trained specialists study employees performing a job and collect information on the behaviors that they observe. This technique is most appropriate for production jobs. In other cases, specialists interview the several people who hold similar jobs and ask questions about their jobs. Similarly, questionnaires and checklists can be used to gather information. Through work samples, specialists record the job activities of several jobholders. Finally, management-position description questionnaires contain task-oriented items that elicit different responses from different functions, elicit different responses from different management levels, and are relevant for more than one function. The responses of a specific manager can be aggregated into a job description.

Most organizations use application forms as screening devices to determine whether someone meets the minimum requirements. In general, application blanks seek information about an applicant’s background and present employment status. However – and this will vary from country to country – some questions are considered to be “red flags” of possible discrimination and should be avoided. The following are examples from the United States that need to be kept in mind.

� Don’t ask applicants if they have children, plan to have children or what child-care arrangements they have made.

� Don’t ask an applicant’s age, marital status, national origin, race, religion, sex or sexual orientation.

� Don’t ask whether the candidate has a physical or mental disability that would interfere with doing the job.

� Don’t ask for identifying characteristics such as height or weight.

� Don’t ask a female candidate for her maiden name.

� Don’t ask about citizenship. Proof of citizenship can be acquired after hiring.

� Don’t ask applicants about their arrest records; you are allowed to ask if they have been convicted of a crime.

� Don’t ask if a candidate smokes.

A more recent addition is the biodata form, which asks questions about an applicant’s background, experience and preferences. For example, candidates might be asked whether they are willing to travel often, if they prefer to work alone or in teams. They appear to be good predictors of success and have a less adverse effect on minorities than many standard tests.

On applications and r�sum�s, potential exists for job seekers to provide inaccurate information. Research indicates that distortions occur frequently, especially on information that is difficult to con organization. By all means, avoid doing this. When employers discover distortions, they often refuse to hire the applicant or fire already-hired employees.

The employment interview is the most common selection tool, but research shows it suffers from significant reliability and validity problems. In this context, reliability refers to consistency of measurement across judges. Numerous studies have found that interviewers do not agree with one another on the assessment of candidates. Interviewers also may be biased or make snap judgements based on the first few minutes of an interview. Interviewers also may not use the same questions from one interview to another or may not ask the questions in the same order, causing reliability problems.

To avoid problems caused by the traditional job interview, an increasing number of organizations have adopted an approach called the structured interview. As its name suggests, the structured interview is based on a thorough job analysis, applying job-related questions with predetermined answers consistent across all interviews for a particular job. In general, employers interview all candidates within two days.

Structured interviews have been proven to be quite valid predictors of job performance, and organizations should use three types of questions. Situational questions ask job candidates to describe how they would handle particular work situations. Job-knowledge questions determine whether candidates have the basic knowledge needed for the job. Worker-requirement questions assess the willingness of the applicant to perform under the current work conditions. Structured interviews also help identify the “fit” between applicants and the organization. Structured interviews conducted by multiple independent interviewers, including future co-workers, generally yield good results.

Tests of general cognitive ability evaluate verbal and quantitative abilities and measure a person’s potential. The idea of any ability test is to ascertain how the applicant might perform in the future. The higher the cognitive ability score, the more a person can learn and the faster he or she does so. Many organizations in the United States and Europe have used cognitive tests for decades. Research has determined that cognitive ability tests are valid predictors of job performance.

In addition to general cognitive tests, which measure general mental abilities, some organizations use specific ability tests, which assess skills necessary for specific jobs. For example, an applicant to be an airline pilot may be asked to take a vision test. Clerical tests measure clerical skills in a job-relevant context, and some software organizations use programmer aptitude tests.

Mechanical tests are used for semiskilled and skilled mechanical jobs. The tests primarily are cognitive tests, and they measure the recognition of tools and comprehension of mechanical principles, for example. Another common mechanical test evaluates a person’s ability to visualize how parts fit together.

Psychomotor tests usually help identify good candidates for jobs that require psychomotor skills such as finger dexterity to quickly use a computer. Individuals have a variety of psychomotor abilities, each unrelated to one another or to cognitive ability. Therefore, only psychomotor skills related to a specific job may accurately predict a person’s performance. In general, psychomotor tests are appropriate for jobs that rely on physical skills.
5. Work Simulations

Behavioral work samples evaluate samples of an applicant’s behavior while performing vital tasks for a job. All work samples are samples of the work related to a specific job. In essence, they are replicas of the jobs. In general, organizations use behavioral work samples to measure psychomotor skills. However, a behavioral work sample differs from traditional psychomotor tests because it is more job-specific.

As the name indicates, knowledge and skill work samples measure the knowledge and skills considered necessary to perform a specific job well. Knowledge samples are most appropriate for professional, technical or administrative positions; they are similar to ability tests. For example, a manager would recommend solutions to a problem or a scientist would evaluate hypotheses.

An assessment center asks candidates for managerial or higher-level positions to perform a set of simulated tasks or exercises. Observers, usually managers from the organization trained as assessors, rate the performance of candidates and then infer what each candidate’s managerial skills and abilities are. Well-known organizations worldwide use assessment centers, including PriceWater-houseCoopers and the BBC. Assessment centers usually are located away from the office, take one to three days, and test several candidates at a time. Most centers evaluate organizing, planning, decision-making and leadership abilities. The widely used in-basket exercise measures how candidates prioritize and deal with the types of items that might be found in a manager’s in-basket.
6. Medical, Physical and Substance-Abuse Tests

Physical examinations are costly and, therefore, usually are one of the final steps in the selection process. Applicants for certain jobs also may be asked to take specific medical tests. For example, an employee whose jobs involved manual labor may receive an X-ray of his back. Organizations should follow guidelines for the sensory, psychomotor, cognitive and physical abilities needed for jobs to reduce future worker compensation claims and other problems. However, organizations should avoid arbitrary physical requirements because they will exclude people capable of performing jobs well.

Genetic screenings identify individuals who are hypersensitive to harmful chemicals. The test can prevent people who are hypersensitive from being in jobs that could harm them. But the testing is controversial and few organizations use it.

AIDS became a major medical issue for employers in the 1980s and continues to be a challenge in the workplace. In the United States, AIDS patients are protected by the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Many organizations such as IBM and AT&T have endorsed not using tests for AIDS or HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, as part of general pre-employment screening.

Drug and alcohol tests have become more common but remain controversial. Alcohol and drug abuse costs organizations billions of dollars annually in lost productivity and absenteeism. Employers who require drug and alcohol tests should specify their policies, determine whether to test only applicants or also test current employees, and determine whether the consequences for abuse will be discipline or rehabilitation for employees who test positive for drug use.
7. Validity of Tests and Legal Considerations

Validity refers to the extent to which scores on a test or interview correspond to actual job performance. Validity is at the core of selection techniques. A technique that is not valid is useless and may create legal liabilities. Documenting the validity of a selection tool is important if the organization ever faces a legal challenge. If the organization is accused of discrimination in hiring, the validity of selection techniques becomes crucial evidence.

Ability tests and work samples appear to be valid predictors of job performance. Across occupations, evidence suggests that ability tests are valid predictors of job performance and success in training programs. Assessment centers may be expensive, but they appear to be valid predictors of managerial performance.

Personality and interest inventories rarely appear to be valid predictors of job performance. Personality and interest tests try to measure motivation or personal preferences. They were developed as diagnostic tests, not for hiring.

Pre-employment drug testing appears to be a valid predictor of job performance. In a study conducted by the U.S. Postal Service, 5,000 job applicants took drug tests, but their results were not used in the selection process. One year later, the U.S. Postal Service found that applicants who had tested positive were absent 41% more often and fired 38% more often than those who did not test positive.

In the United States, polygraph tests are illegal as part of employment screening under federal Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1998. Polygraph tests are unreliable as much as one-third of the time. Honesty tests, which are not illegal, measure attitudes toward honesty. One study by independent researchers indicated honesty tests are valid, but the tests remain controversial because of potential “false-positive” results, when honest people score poorly.

One of the best ways of predicting future performance of applicants is to look at their past employment records. However, employers must know which information is useful and how to identify it.

In general, letters of recommendation are unrelated to future job performance because almost all letters are positive, according to research. Because unfavorable letters of recommendation are so rare, they should command particular attention and should not be dismissed as irrelevant.

One way to cull valuable information from letters of reference is to focus on the content of the letters rather than the positive tone. Recruiting managers should look for the traits attributed to the applicant in the letter as information potential useful in the selection process. For example, one letter of recommendation may describe an applicant as detail oriented and another letter of recommendation may characterize a different applicant as highly innovative. Though both letters may be equally positive, they provide information specific to each of the applicants.

Checking an applicant’s references also is useful to learn about his or her previous employment record and to avert lawsuits over negligent hiring procedures. In the United States, many employers are hesitant to provide much information because they fear their former employees suing them for defamation. Almost every state court has said both former and prospective employers have a “qualified privilege” to discuss an employee’s performance record as long as they follow three rules. First, the former employers must determine that the inquirer has a job-related need to know the information. Second, the former employers must release only truthful information. Third, information such as an employee’s race or age should not be released.

In the single predictor approach, the decision-maker considers only one piece of information or one selection device. The single predictor approach may be acceptable for simple, repetitive jobs in which only cone task is done. Single predictors: only one piece of information used in hiring

In the multiple hurdle approach, an applicant has to clear one hurdle before moving on to the next one. Applicants who do not clear a hurdle are no longer considered for the job. Organizations tend to use the multiple hurdle strategy when it has to consider a large number of applicants. Usually the least-expensive selection method is used as the first hurdle, setting a minimum “cut score” as way to cost-effectively and efficiently remove unqualified candidates.

The compensatory approach assumes that one outstanding score can compensate for another poorer one. No decisions are made until applicants complete all interviews and tests. Sometimes called a clinical strategy, the decision-maker reviews all the information and then reaches a decision, though more subjective because of the compensatory rationale.

The combined approach requires that applicants pass specific hurdles first and then their performances of the remaining predictors are considered overall. For example, an accountant would be required to pass the CPA exam before moving further in the selection process. Some organizations apply a statistical strategy once an applicant passes the hurdles, applying a mathematical formula to the other predictors and calculating an overall score. Research indicates that a statistical strategy tends to be more reliable than subjective one.

Under the best circumstances, selection decisions should include the Human Resource department, relevant line managers and the applicants’ future co-workers.

After deciding whom to hire, employers can influence the person’s decision through the amount of time they allow the individual to consider the offer. Given unlimited time, applicants often wait to accept an offer until they have heard from all other organizations to which they applied. Usually the organization cannot offer the job to its second-choice candidate until it hears from the first, unless it has jobs for both if they both were to accept. Therefore, most organizations have recall policies, a set amount of time for which an applicant can ponder the offer.

Employers sometimes find that the applicant pool is larger, and the organization will have to reject many applicants. Organizations, particularly consumer-oriented organizations, must handle rejection with tact in the recruitment and selection processes. If applicants feel mistreated or angry toward the organization, they not only might never buy the organization’s product again, but they also may encourage their friends to shun the organization as well.

Research indicates that specific characteristics of rejection letters make a difference. Statements leave a positive impression when they:

� Are friendly. Thank the person for applying and wish them luck in the future.

� Include a personalized – and correct – greeting such as “Ms.,” not “Mr.” to all.

� Provide context about the size and excellence of the applicant pool, which reduce disappointment and increase perceptions of fairness.

Organizations also should inform all applicants of their recruitment and selection timetable, and the organization should adhere to its self-imposed deadlines.

� To know techniques for selecting the most qualified candidate and not violating laws.

1. When interviewing job candidates, I understand that some specific questions that are illegal or create the potential for lawsuits. However, sometimes organizations need certain information for insurance purpose, for example. Are there ways to avoid inappropriate questions but collect the necessary information?

Yes, there are ways to convert potentially inappropriate questions to more appropriate ones. To avoid legal problems, remember never to ask questions that are peripheral to the work. Focus on looking for someone qualified to perform the job. Whether you use an unstructured or structure interviewed, you should never ask certain questions such as the person’s marital status or race or you risk being sued. However, the following are ways to rephrase questions that pose legal problems if improperly asked.

2. Has research compared the validity of different types of selections test?

Yes, several studies have looked at the number or organizations using specific selection tools and the validity of the techniques. Though some of the tests were conducted in the 1980s, the results still provide insight. The following chart shows some of the results.

3. I know that providing references create potential problems about violating laws that govern privacy or employee access to information about their performance. What information can employers provide in references?

Laws vary by state and country, so you should check the laws that govern your region. In the United States, the following guidelines may help minimize the chances of encountering problems when providing references.

1. Don’t volunteer information. Respond only to specific organization or institutional inquiries and requests. Before responding, call the inquirer to check in the validity of the request.

2. Direct all communication only to persons who have a specific interest in that information.

3. State in the message that the information you are providing is confidential and should be treated as such. Use qualifying statements such as “providing information that was requested”; “relating this information only because it was requested”; or “providing information that is to be used for professional purposes only.” Sentences such as these imply that information was not presented for the purpose of hurting of damaging a person’s reputation.

5. Provide only reference data that relates and pertains to the job and job performance in question.

6. Avoid vague statements such as “He was an average employee;” “She was careless at times”; “He displayed an inability to work with others.”

7. Document all released information. Use specific statements such as: “Ms. __________ made an average of two bookkeeping errors per week”; or “This spring, four members of the work team write letters asking not to be place on the shift with Mr. _________.”

8. Clearly label all subjective statements based on personal opinions and feelings. Say “I believe…” whenever making a statement that is not fact.

9. When providing a negative potentially negative statement, add the reason or reasons why or specify the incidents that led you to this opinion.

Source: “Employment References: Do You Know the Law?” Personnel Journal 63, no. 2 (1984), pages. 32-36.

Advantages	Disadvantages
Improved morale of promoted employee	Possible morale problems of those not promoted
Better assessment of abilities	Potential lack of diversity at top
Lower cost for some jobs	Political infighting for promotions
Motivates employees by signaling opportunities for advancement	Less likely to introduce innovation or fresh ideas
Have to hire only at entry level	Too close to new subordinates

Advantages	Disadvantages
Best qualified, if chosen from pool of internal and external candidates	Perceived as rookies by current employees or may not “fit”
Fresh perspectives and different approaches	Learning curve to understand the organization’s policies and procedures
Less expensive than training employees promoted from within	May cause morale problems for current employees not promoted
More likely to provide diversity	Longer socialization process
May bring insight into competitors	May retain attitudes from old job

Source	Number of Employment Offers	Number of Acceptances	Total Cost	Turnover After 1 Year	Average Performance Rating at 1 Year
Referrals
Print ads
Internet ads
Agencies
Colleges
beneficiaries
Source: Managing Human Resources by Luis R. G�mez-Mej�a et al.

Suggested Conversions of Some Inappropriate Pre-employment Inquiries
Inappropriate Inquiry	More Appropriate Inquiry
What is your maiden name? Have you been known by another name?	Have you used another name in which your educational or employment records are filed?
Date of birth?	Are you over 18 and under 70?
If you served in the military, what is your discharge date?	What types of education and experience did you have in the military that relate to the job for which you are applying?
When did you attend high school? College?	Did you complete high school? Do you possess college degrees that relate to the job for which you are applying?
What is the minimum salary you are willing to accept?	If employed, are you willing to accept the approved salary for the job?
Have you ever been convicted of a criminal offense?	Have you, since 18, been convicted of a misdemeanor or felony, other than minor traffic violations? (Note: Each conviction will be judge in relation to time, seriousness and circumstances and will not necessarily bar you from employment.)
List all of your clubs and/or organizational memberships?	List any organizations, clubs, societies or professional memberships that relate to the job for which you are applying.
Do you have a valid driver’s license?	If the job for which you are applying requires driving a state vehicle, do you possess a valid driver’s license?
Do you have any dependents or relatives who should be contacted in the event of an emergency?	Please provide the name, address, and telephone number of someone who should be contacted in the event of an emergency.
Source: “A Review of State Government Employment Application Forms for Suspect Inquiries,” Public Personnel Management 11 (1982), page 59.

Comparison of Various Common Selection Techniques
Type of Test	% of organizations Using Device	Validity
Cognitive ability test	42	.53
Situational interview	5-20	.54
Work sample test	75	.44
Assessment center	6	.44
Biodata	11	.37
Background check	8-15	.26
Experience rating	no data	.18
Standard interview	70	.07
Interest inventory	5	.10
Education rating	no data	.10
Personality test	5	.10-.25
Handwriting analysis	5	.0
Polygraph test	6	.0
Drug screening	25	varied estimates
Alcohol screening	13	varied estimates
Genetic screening	1	varied estimates
Source: Randall S. Schuler and Vandra L. Huber, “Chapter 5: Selection and Staffing,” Personnel and Human Resource Management.