1. Defining Conflict

Whenever people communicate and share information, there is the possibility of conflict between them. Conflict occurs when two or more parties believe that what each wants is incompatible with what the other wants.

The parties in a conflict may be individuals, groups, organizations, or nations. In an organizational setting the parties to a conflict might be two departments. It is not at all unusual for different departments to be in conflict over the use of office space or the portion of the annual budget they receive. Thus, wants may range from having an idea accepted to gaining control over scarce resources.

The notion of incompatibility means that each party feels that what each wants will not happen if the other party gets what it wants. In other words people feel that they are in a conflict situation whenever they think that someone else is blocking the path to their goal.

It is important to note that conflict is a belief that wants and goals are incompatible, not necessarily that they are actually incompatible. Perception plays a primary role in conflict situations. As we have seen before, perception is reality. When it comes to conflict, if we believe that we are in a conflict—if we believe that our wants are incompatible—then they are, whether those wants are in reality incompatible or not.

Conflict is an ever-present part of human interaction and communication. Because we live in a complex, challenging world, conflicts will arise as a natural part of interaction between people. That does not mean that you should necessarily deliberately incite conflict. Rather, if you consider that conflict is a possible outcome of working together—particularly when emotions and energy are running high—you will be in a better position to work through conflict when it does arise.
2. An Overview Of Conflict:

· Conflict may be temporary or of long duration.

· Conflict may lead to overt behavior or to indirect, covert behavior.

· Patterns of behavior tend to perpetuate themselves in the conflict interaction.

· As senseless and chaotic as a conflict interaction may appear, it has a general direction that can be observed

· A conflict interaction is sustained by the moves and countermoves of the participants; these moves and countermoves are based on the power that the participants exert.

Conflict interactions affect the relationships between the participants.

Assumptions about Conflict

· Conflict is an inevitable and important human process.

· Conflict is, a priori, neither good nor bad; conflict simply is.

· Conflict can lead to destructive or creative results.

· Conflict can have positive results.

· Conflict can have negative results.

· Conflicts can be managed to maximize creative outcomes and to minimize destructive ones.

As we can see, conflict is neither good nor bad—neither positive negative—in and of itself. What is positive and negative are the potential outcomes of conflict. Our goal, then, is not to try to eliminate conflict—that is impossible—but to manage it so that we can increase the likelihood that the positive results of conflict will take place and that we can reduce the likelihood that the negative results of conflict will occur or become excessive.

3. Positive and Negative Outcomes of Conflict

Negative Outcomes of Conflict

Conflict can have negative results. Too much conflict can lead people to focus on narrow issues rather than cooperating to accomplish a task; conflict that is too great can create a climate of self-interest and hostility. Some of the negative results of conflict are that:

· People may feel defeated and demeaned.

· Distance between people may increase.

· A climate of distrust, anxiety, and suspicion may develop.

· Good people may leave their jobs.

· Individuals, teams, and departments that need to cooperate may become focused on their own goals and desires rather than on what needs to be done to accomplish the broader, organizational goal.

· Active and/or passive resistance may develop.

Positive Outcomes of Conflict

Conflict can have positive results. A moderate degree of conflict may help individuals maintain an optimum level of stimulation necessary for motivation; it can be instrumental for goal-oriented behavior of two rational parties. Some of the positive results of conflict are that:

· Conflict produces the need to search for new approaches.

· Repressed problems surface and are dealt with.

· Tensions that are aroused by the conflict situation stimulate interest and activity.

· Better ideas are often produces from conflict situations.

· Individuals can test themselves in response to a challenge.

4. Causes and Roots of Conflict

Before looking at some of the methods to use to best manage conflict so that the positive outcomes are maximized, it is important to look at the types and causes of conflict.

Types of Conflict:

· Substantive

· Personal antagonism

Substantive conflicts are disagreement over issues. Such a conflict might involve disagreements over policies, how policies are shaped and put into effect, the portion of the budget that different departments are to get, who gets to use the executive board room for a meeting, or even the structure of the organization itself.

Personal antagonism conflicts include the personal and emotional differences that can arise when people work together and interact with one another. They are often called personality clashes and arise when someone feels that another person is too difficult, too emotional, or too “crazy” so that it become too difficult and distressing to work with that person.

Roots Of Conflict

· Perceptual differences

· Differences over facts

· Differences over goals

· Differences over methods

· Differences over values

· Hierarchical differences

5. Causes and Roots of Conflict (Continued)

Conflict having to do with perceptual differences is due to the fact that we all perceive the world differently. As we have seen, we each have different personal experiences, different beliefs and value systems, and come from different cultural backgrounds. These differences mean that we may see any given situation very differently which, in turn, may create or increase conflict.

Conflict about differences over facts occurs when people disagree as to what the problem is or as to the information that is relevant to the problem. People might actually be in possession of different facts—as might be the case of someone from a Finance Department and someone from an Operations Department—that then causes them to have a disagreement about the situation.

Conflict about differences over goals mean that people disagree what should be accomplished, how things should be done or the plans that should be adopted by the team, the department, or the organization. Such a conflict has to do with where we want to go and where we want to be in the future.

Conflict involving differences over methods has to do with how we get to where we want to go. We might agree on our goals, but disagree about how to achieve those goals. That is, we might disagree about the best, the easiest, the most economical, or the most ethical route to follow to get to where we want to be.

Conflict about differences over values involves disagreements concerning how we feel the world should operate. Such conflicts involve our basic beliefs and focus on such things as justice, fairness, and how power and wealth should be distributed. They are among the most difficult conflicts to manage.

Conflicts regarding hierarchical differences are inherent in the fact that we hold different positions—which also consist of differences in power, status, authority, and responsibility—in organizational hierarchies. Our roles, as a manager or a technician or a chief executive, mean that we will often see situation and problems differently and thus may be in conflict over the issues involved.

6. Managing Conflict

One way to make conflict more manageable is to look at any given conflict from a situational perspective. That means to look at the specific situation. You can then focus on the specific situation and the issues involved to decide how to manage that conflict situation. There might be some conflict situations that call for quick, decisive action, others where it might be best to let the other person have his or her way, and still others where it is best to avoid the conflict altogether.

Wherever possible, however, when you are in a conflict situation, there are two important principles to follow:

· Seek Win-Win Solutions

· Demonstrate Empathy

Seek Win-Win Solutions: Although any given situation may call for other ways to manage the conflict, it is probably best, to the extent possible, to approach most conflict situations from a win-win or collaborative perspective. This means trying to generate creative solutions that benefit everyone. Seeking win-win solutions means that a team works to generate ideas that can meet the bottom line but also considers the needs of everyone involved.

Demonstrate Empathy: When people are angry or upset, they often want to be understood and feel that their concerns have not been heard. By demonstrating that you understand a person’s concerns and needs—even when you do not agree with their position or identify with their experience—it is more likely that you will be perceived as respectful and the conflict can be managed more quickly and effectively. People want to be listened to. The tension inherent in conflict can be quickly diminished by paying attention to another person’s concerns. That does not mean that you have to agree with them, but rather to understand their perspective and point of view.

7. Basic Steps for Managing Conflict

When you are in a conflict situation or helping other manage conflict, there are a number of steps you can follow so that you more easily manage the process and find a solution for the issues of the given conflict situation.

Establish a Supportive Climate. Make sure that both parties are ready and will talk and listen to one another without being judgmental.

Share your Perceptions. Tell the other person what happened. Explain, don’t blame. It also helps to see how each party thinks the other sees the situation.

Isolate the Causes. Find out the causes of the conflict—perceptions, facts, goals, methods, values, hierarchical, or some combination. Is the conflict because of substantive issues or personal antagonism or both?

Explain the Ramifications. Tell the other person how you feel about what happened. Tell the other person what you would like to have happen in the future or how you would like the situation to be different.

Generate Alternative Solutions. Find alternative solutions to the conflict situation. People generally spend a great deal of energy defending their position if they feel it is the only one available. People can then focus on finding one that is best for everyone, rather than trying to hold on to the only alternative they can see.

Select an Appropriate Strategy. Make sure that both parties feel that the solution that is chosen is acceptable and that it is best for the organization.

Monitor the Solution. List any follow-up items that may need to be taken care of. Keep track of the implementation of the solution to make sure that both parties remain satisfied.

8. Hints for Managing Conflict Effectively

There are a number of things that you can do during a conflict that will help you and others to be more effective in dealing with the conflict.

Ask and Listen. Ask the other person to share his or her experience. Listen attentively to what the other person has to say. Try to understand their perspective and point of view.

Be Aware of Time. Make sure that the other person has ample time to listen to you and ask the other person if it is a good time to talk. If you don’t have the luxury of time because you are trying to meet an important deadline, resolve the conflict to the best of your ability in the moment and then take time later to process more fully.

Keep Conflict Private. Choose a quiet place and time to talk where you have privacy. Don’t try and chat in front of others unless the conflict is a group issue. When issues are stated publicly, people’s initial positions tend to harden and their willingness to find a solution diminishes.

Cool Off When You Need To. Tensions can go up and people can become angry during conflict. Try and cool off and allow others to do the same. Take this break even if you only have five minutes to spare. If you say something spiteful and malicious about another person during the heat of a conflict, you can’t take it back.

Try And Empathize With The Other Person. Try to distance yourself enough from your own emotions so that you can understand where the other person is coming from. Show concern for the other person's feelings.

Remain Neutral. Don’t agree or disagree, but do provide af organizationing nonverbal behavior demonstrating that you understand what is being said.

9. Hints for Managing Conflict Effectively (Continued)

Don't Attempt To Conquest. Set your goals for a win-win outcome.

Don’t Gang Up on the Other Person. Bringing in other people on your side to support you might feel like it will help you win, but it will also increase the tension and might lead the other person to bring others as well. Then you simply have more people involved who might not be interested in reaching a solution.

Keep the Conflict Focused on the Issue. Don’t bring up other issues. All you have done, then, is to widen the scope of the conflict.

Clear Your Mind. Clear your mind and keep it clear so that you can hear the other person. Don’t think about what you are going to say in response to what you are hearing.

Listen Without Speaking. Don’t interrupt, except to clarify what has been said. If you don’t understand, it’s okay to ask for a restatement.

Allow for Silence. Don’t try and fill the silences. Sometimes silence is necessary for cooling off or collecting thoughts.

Save Your Story. Don’t start telling your own story while they are telling you theirs.

Clarify Your Understanding. Reflect the other person’s basic ideas and feelings when they are finished speaking. Paraphrase in your own words what you think the other person is saying.

Use Alternatives For Positive Venting Of Anger. Venting your anger at the other person can only increase tension and may cause the conflict to get worse.

· Exercise

· Have physical outlets

· Have discussions with close friends

10. Listening Strategies for Conflict Management

Active listening is one of the best ways to manage conflict productively and effectively. Here are a number of tips on how to actively listen during conflict.

1. Stop The Action

· Realize you are in a conflict situation.

· Refuse to be a garbage dump.

· Don't accept blame—seek clarity.

· Apologize when wrong—be the first to bury the hatchet.

2. Acknowledge Your Feelings And Your Responsibility

· Use a feeling statement—"I feel" vs. "You are."

· Don't stifle your anger.

· Be realistic and engage in self-encounter.

3. Clarify The Real Issue Or Issues

· Stick to one topic—deal with one issue at a time.

· Keep the conflict focused on issues and not personalities.

· Determine the source of anger.

· Determine what the anger is covering up.

· Utilize your listening skills, especially by asking questions.

4. Allow The Other Person To Fully Respond

· Be patient—don't jump to conclusions.

· Don't attack the other person.

· Manage your emotionally charged words.

Assignments

Matching the Columns

1. Positive outcomes A. Belief between two or more

parties that their wants and goals are

incompatible

2. Negative outcomes B. A climate of distrust, anxiety and

suspicion

3. Types of conflict C. produces need to search for new

approaches

4. Positive venting of anger D. Substantive and personal antagonism

5. Conflict E. Seek win-win solutions and demonstrate

empathy

6. Managing conflict principles F. Exercise, physical outlets, discussions

with friends

Answers:

1.) C

2.) B

3.) D

4.) F

5.) A

6.) E

Multiple Choice

1. The parties in a conflict may be _______.

a. In the same department

b. fired

c. individuals, groups, organizations or nations

d. Both a and c

2. Conflict is _______.

a. Neither good nor bad

b. A likelihood that needs to be eliminated

c. Always someone’s fault

d. Short-lived

3. Too much conflict can lead people to focus on _______.

a. Whether or not they will get a raise

b. the biggest issues rather than the cooperation for the task

c. narrow issues rather than cooperation for the task

d. having the CEO fix the problem

4. Roots of conflict are _______.

a. Perceptual and hierarchical differences

b. Differences over facts and goals

c. Differences over methods and values

d. All of the above

True/False

1. _______ Substantive conflicts are disagreements over issues.

2. _______ Personality clashes are rarely the cause of conflicts.

3. _______ People might actually be in possession of the same facts with a different perception of them that causes the conflict.

4. _______ Conflict over values means that people disagree over what should be accomplished.

5. _______ Win-win solutions are very rarely found.

6. _______ Demonstrating empathy is a good way for people to know you understand, if not agree, with their point of view.

Answers:

1.) T

2.) F

3.) T

4.) F

5.) F

6.) T

Summary

Substantive conflicts are disagreement over issues. Personal antagonism conflicts include the personal and emotional differences that can arise when people work together and interact with one another. They are often called personality clashes

This module examined a number of steps you can follow when you are in a conflict situation or helping other manage conflict so that you more easily manage the process and find a solution for the issues involved.

Active listening is one of the best ways to manage conflict productively and effectively. A number of tips on how to actively listen during conflict were offered.

Test

1. _______ Positive venting of anger includes file throwing and name calling.

2. _______ The definition of conflict occurs when two or more parties believe that their wants and goals are incompatible.

3. _______ Conflicts only arise when people choose for them to do so.

4. _______ A positive outcome to conflict is the need to search for new approaches.

5. _______ A moderate degree of conflict may deprive individuals of the positive stimulation necessary for motivation.

6. _______ Conflict involving differences over methods has to do with how we get to where we want to go.

7. _______ Isolating the causes of conflict helps in the resolution of it.

8. _______ Once a solution has been reached, no follow-up is necessary.

9. _______ Conflicts are best made public so that everyone can learn something form the experience.

10. ______ Sometimes silence in managing conflict is necessary for cooling off or collecting thoughts.

Answers:

1.) F

2.) T

3.) F – it is a natural part of interaction between people

4.) T

5.) F – Helps maintain optimum level of stimulation

6.) T

7.) T

8.) F – follow-up is important to make sure both parties remain satisfied

9.) F – private

10.) T

Bibliography

Dana, Daniel (2000). Conflict Resolution, McGraw Hill Text.

Drucker, Peter (2001) 1st edition, Management Challenges for the Twenty-First Century,

Harper project/programme purpose, New York, New York.

Fortini-Campbell, L., May, M., Kangas, M., and Bailey, P. (1978). A Communicator's

Handbook. Seattle, WA: Western States Technical Assistance Resource.

Gibb, Jack (1978). Trust: A New View of Personal and Organizational Development, Guild Tutors Publishing.

Glossary

Personal Antagonism: Are the personal and emotional differences that can arise when people work together and interact with one another.

Win-win Solutions: Trying to generate a creative solution that benefits everyone. Seeking win-win solutions means that a team works to generate ideas that can meet the bottom line but also considers the needs of everyone involved.

Empathy: Understanding a person’s concerns, needs and feelings even when you do not identify or agree with their position. This includes understanding their perspective and point of view.

Learning Objectives

Q & A

1. In conflict, isn’t someone always right and the other person wrong? How can you resolve conflict if no one is wrong?

Conflict occurs when two or more parties believe that what each wants and needs is incompatible with what the other party wants and needs. It is important to note that conflict is a belief that wants and goals are incompatible, not that they necessarily are incompatible. The question of right and wrong is only our perception of reality. Conflict is managed from a situational perspective and considers the needs of everyone involve, not just one party.

When people are angry or upset, they often want to be understood and feel that their concerns have not been heard. By demonstrating that you understand a person’s concerns and needs—even when you do not agree with their position or identify with their experience—it is more likely that you will be perceived as respectful and the conflict managed more quickly and effectively.

3. Why should conflict be kept private? Shouldn’t you resolve it right away, wherever you are?

When issues are stated publicly, people’s initial positions tend to harden and their willingness to find a solution diminishes. They become defensive in order to save face. Conflict should be managed as quickly as possible but it needs be done in a quiet and private setting.