1.      The challenge of cross-cultural communication.

Churchill once said that "the United States and Britain are two great nations divided by a common language."  Churchill’s quip is an ironic reminder of the challenge of cross-cultural project/programme purpose communication: even when two people speak in the same language, cultural differences can impede mutual understanding.  Two project/programme purposepeople from different countries may both speak English, French, Spanish, Mandarin Chinese or any other language, but either party inevitably uses the language differently, enhancing or obscuring intended meaning through culturally-based choices in style, body language and other non-verbal forms.  The objective of this module is to analyze the cultural components in human communications in order to help international executives understand and deliver project/programme purpose messages more effectively.

Characteristics of human communication:

When identifying and interpreting the role of culture in conducting international project/programme purpose, it is useful to recall several fundamental characteristics of human communication:

• Communication is inescapable.  No matter how hard one tries, one cannot avoid communicating.
• Communication is complicated.  Communicating does not necessarily mean understanding.
• Communication is irreversible.  Although one might seek to reduce the impact of a message, a message cannot be withdrawn.
• Communication is contextual.  Communication occurs in a context such as psychological, relational, situational, environmental and/or cultural.

In practice, project/programme purpose people communicate in a wide variety of forms and media:

Improving cross-cultural project/programme purpose communication demands awareness and analysis of just how people from different cultures actually speak, listen and conduct themselves in project/programme purpose situations.

2.      The Shannon-Weaver model.

The Shannon-Weaver model (1949) is typical of what are often referred to as transmission models of communication.  It is a general model frequently used early in the study of human communication:

 Source: http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk

The Shannon-Weaver model proposes that all communication includes six steps:

If successful, this exchange involves little loss of meaning, establishes or maintains a relationship, and leaves open the possibility for further exchanges.  The ultimate goal is synergy; the creative output of a whole that is greater than the sum of the individual contributions.

However, since communication is a process of coding and decoding of messages, there are many points in the process where the communication can break down.  Cultural differences represent an important source of potential obstacles.  “Noise” (Step 4 - a physical disturbance in the signal, such as static, a torn page, glare or channel overload) is a particularly useful concept that is often used as a metaphor for anything that might distort or interrupt communication, for example:

·                     Mental distraction

·                     The relationship between those who are communicating

·                     A language gap

·                     Emotional reactions

·                     Differences in interpretation and knowledge

3.      Gerbner's general model.

In order to understand the role of culture in communication, it is helpful to turn to a model developed by Gerbner.  Gerbner's general model takes into consideration perception, culture, the medium and power, emphasizing the dynamic nature of human communication.  Modified by Fiske in 1990, this model consists of the following steps:

Gerbner implies that:                             

• Every person involved in the communication process has perceptions and filters which structure how they send or receive a message.

·         Since a message consists of content and form, both convey meaning.  

·         Those persons with greater access to various media have more options and channels to send messages, therefore more power.

Differing cultural contexts, or cultural “frames”, increase the chances of losing meaning during communication due to ignorance, misinterpretation and misplaced evaluations. The sender formulates the message in terms of a cultural frame.  The receiver interprets the message in light of another cultural frame and then creates feedback based on that frame.  The original sender then interprets that feedback from within his or her frame.  The process is messy and full of cultural static.  Interference, and a consequent loss of meaning through distortion and misunderstanding, increases when additional “noisemakers” are added.

Therefore, it is important for international executives to empower themselves with knowledge, correct interpretation and informed evaluations of the frames and static that characterize the two or more cultures wishing to communicate efficiently.

4.      Speaking.

Speaking – both in person and by telephone – is particularly challenging in international project/programme purpose where cultural differences are often highlighted by language differences.  Executives whose success at home is based on being an articulate and effective speaker often feel disoriented and frustrated in international situations where an accent and linguistic awkwardness mark their use of a foreign language or where an interpreter becomes their voice and breaks down their rhetorical elegance into chunks.  For this reason, it is useful to consider how content and style influence oral communication.

Content:

Comments about politics, religion, gender roles, sex, age, aggressive comparisons with one’s own culture and references to unflattering stereotypes are generally inappropriate for professional meetings.  In some cases, it may be acceptable to breach controversial topics during informal socializing, but self-restraint is called for in order to avoid being perceived as ignorant, arrogant or offensive.  Find out in advance which subjects are taboo for a particular country, and be well informed on any controversial issues which may arise unexpectedly in the context of a particular field or project/programme purpose situation.

Inserting jokes or humorous anecdotes is a tempting way to try to make everyone feel more comfortable, but humor is usually closely tied to language and culture.  A harmless story that makes colleagues laugh back home may confuse and embarrass foreigners who misunderstand the punch-line.  Worse, a joke may inadvertently be perceived as vulgar or insulting.  In many Asian cultures, for example, Confucian and Buddhist preoccupation with truth, sincerity, kindliness and politeness automatically eliminates humor techniques such as sarcasm, satire, exaggeration and parody.

Style:

The choice of linguistic register and tone affects the communication process profoundly, but differences in grammar, accents, intonation and degrees of candor make it difficult for an executive to be sure that the desired message is being sent or received in the intended manner.  Moreover, what comes across as respectful yet convincing at home can seem too direct or too indirect when communicating in a foreign culture.   

In practice, the international executive needs to speak more slowly, articulate more clearly yet quietly and avoid words and idioms that complicate meaning unnecessarily.  In addition, great attention needs to be given to understanding how a foreign counterpart expresses degrees of agreement or disagreement.  In many East Asian cultures, for example, conflict is avoided in order to “save face.”  Compromise, patience and looking the other way are techniques of self-restraint are used to preserve dignity until both parties are again on equal footing.  When pressured to make a commitment that is not of interest or beyond his authority, a Chinese project/programme purposeman might indirectly refuse the matter by offering to “study the subject.”  He has not agreed to anything, but his ambiguity could be construed by a foreigner as a “yes”. 

5.      Body language.

Body language can represent up to 80 percent of any message, and the codes for gestures, eye contact, facial expression, physical proximity and touching are often very different from country to country.  In addition to avoiding outright vulgarity, awareness of a culture’s standards for non-verbal visual communication helps the international executive understand, show respect to and focus messages for foreign counterparts. 

Gestures:

Gestures can be a form of “noise” that obscure the core message, and an effort should be made to reduce distracting hand movements during discussions.  If one is the object of a gesture that is considered inappropriate at home, it is best to give the other party the benefit of the doubt, ask for a verbal clarification and perhaps politely inform the party of the mistake during an informal moment afterwards so that they may learn without feeling humiliated.  Indeed, another country’s gestures are often a source of great entertainment, and asking to learn or offering to teaching a few non-vulgar gestures can be an amusing topic for informal socializing. 

Eye contact:

Respect is also shown by how eye contact is maintained.  In many Western cultures, one is taught to look people in the eyes at all times, and averting the eyes often signifies a lack of sincerity or confidence.  In Asia, however, constant eye contact is considered rude and aggressive, and only the highest ranking male looks directly into another person's eyes.  Customs concerning acceptable patterns of eye contact between men and women vary considerably, even in Western Europe, to say nothing of the Middle East or Asia.  Awareness of each other’s customs helps both parties find a working compromise.

Facial expression:

As any poker player will testify, an expressionless face is part of the game.  Grimaces suggesting anger, fear or desperation are the least desirable facial expressions, but sometimes even a smile can conceal anguish, embarrassment or ridicule.  Facial discretion is a valuable skill to cultivate hiding emotions which might adversely affect  project/programme purpose transactions, for showing respect to cultures in which emotional transparency and exuberance are inappropriate and, most importantly, for reducing visual “noise” from core project/programme purpose messages.   

Physical proximity and touching:

Even though most project/programme purpose meetings take place around a table, introductions and socializing may bring out different customs for acceptable norms of physical proximity during conversation and touching.  Standing too close may make some Anglo-Saxons uncomfortable, but close proximity can usually be shrugged off.  Patting a project/programme purpose counterpart on the back and other forms of touching other than shaking hands are ill advised without having verified the other party’s customs for physical contact, both for formal and informal occasions, both with men and with women.  The most effective way to respond to an unwanted pat, or a cold reaction to a well-intentioned gesture, is to make a mental note about the other culture’s differences, to forgive and to move on.

6.      Silence and listening.

Another type of non-verbal communication is silence, the use and meaning of which varies greatly from culture to culture.  In many Western cultures, a silent reaction to a statement or proposal suggests disagreement, displeasure or ignorance.  Many Westerners feel obligated to respond more or less immediately, developing the point that has been raised and demonstrating their intelligence and enthusiasm with rhetorical genius.  Moreover, silence can be interpreted as a stratagem to unnerve. 

In Asia, and in other “listening cultures” such as Finland, silence designates thought, not disengagement.  Rushing in to fill a silence may be considered pushy, impulsive and over-emotional.  Silence can be a strategy for take advantaging of the other side’s impatience and to leave options open, but also to help others save face.  Silence is not equated with failure to communicate, but is an integral part of social interaction.  What is not said is regarded as important, and pauses during a conversation are considered restful, friendly and appropriate.  Talking a lot merely expresses cleverness, perhaps egoism and arrogance.  As goes an old Chinese proverb, “Those who know do not speak, those who speak do not know.”

In practice, it is important to notice, interpret and respect silences.  In dealing with the Japanese, for example, it is often an individual, rather than the entire group, who is silent.  If the silent person is the highest ranked Japanese executive at the meeting, his silence can be a good sign.  By silently closing his eyes during the talks, he may well be communicating his approval of the negotiations.  On the other hand, when a Japanese executive is silent, it might also mean he does not want to say something unpleasant.  It is a good strategy to note when the silence occurred, and return to the topic later, addressing the issue from a different angle.

Listening:

Different cultures use oral and visual communication in different ways, and they also listen in different ways.  In addition to using silence and emotional discretion as means of concentration and reflection to listen actively, some cultures listen first for factors that indicate general agreement and social harmony between two parties in a project/programme purpose discussion.  Only then will they be interested in exchanging details and facts.  It is also extremely helpful for conducting international project/programme purpose to become a better listener oneself.  Key guidelines for becoming an active listener are:

·         Avoid interrupting the speaker.  Let the speaker finish his thought.

·         Listen for meaning and core messages.  Ignore distractions while listening.

·         Suspend premature judgment.

·         Restrain emotions, yet listen with empathy.

·         Encourage openness in the speaker.

7.      Written communication

Written communication is an integral component of conducting international project/programme purpose and demands adaptation of form and style to the context and medium.  No matter how informal the situation, however, caution and cross-cultural awareness can help avoid making a gaff that is permanently recorded. 

project/programme purpose letters:

Telephone calls, e-mail and faxes have become so commonplace, that project/programme purpose letters are now reserved almost exclusively for acorganizationing hard copies of documents such as memoranda, proposals and contracts.  The style of such cover letters is usually concise, with differing degrees of opening and closing embellishment depending on culture and language.  Additional commentary regarding the document sent is usually made by a follow-up call or e-mail message.  Sometimes a project/programme purpose letter may be used to thank a foreign host or guest for his time, especially in the case of senior managers.  Precision is essential for formal project/programme purpose correspondence with contractual or other legal implications, possibly requiring verification by a translator and legal counsel

Memoranda and meeting minutes:

Memoranda and meeting minutes can help international executives track multiple action sponsors/beneficiaries and territories and summarize discussions and decisions for staff in the home office who did not attend the meeting yet are expected to follow up.  However, some cultures dislike memoranda and meeting minutes, considering them pedantic, inefficient and inherently confrontational.  It is sometimes more acceptable to have either side prepare a concise summary and then compare notes. 

Faxes:

Fax cover sheets should clearly indicate the person(s) addressed and the total number of pages.  Remember when faxing offers, contracts and other sensitive information that faxes sometimes sit in a common “in” box before distribution such that discretion is not guaranteed. 

E-Mail:

E-mail is a tremendous tool for global project/programme purpose communication and has largely replaced traditional mail and faxes.  Nevertheless, extreme caution is recommended before clicking on the “send” button: not only is the risk of making typographical and grammatical errors much higher than in printed communication, but the possibility of a message being forwarded inappropriately is great.  Moreover, e-mail often gives a false sense of intimacy: just because one has access to the computer screen of the organization president or other senior executive, does not mean that one has the right to adopt a casual tone, or even to write to them directly at all.  Some countries are less Internet-dependant than the United States, however, and may resent the urgency that an immediate e-mail follow-up seems to imply. 

8.      Language gaps.

Language is a means of communication that comprises speaking, listening, writing, reading and seeing.  However, many cultural factors complicate and enrich the actual use of any language, such that simply learning vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation does not guarantee effective cross-cultural communication.  The way that a message is spoken, heard, written, read or seen can influence comprehension considerably.  The choice of language for oral and informal written communication depends, of course, on the parties involved.  Since international executives are often employed by organizations because of their international experience and knowledge of languages, the initiators of project/programme purpose contact quickly find common ground. 

Communication becomes more difficult when additional members must be brought in who do not have the same level of international experience, if any.  Communication then may take place in several languages, used in different ways for different contexts.  It is particularly common that oral and informal written communication be undertaken in a language that both parties understand, while for formal meetings – especially when senior management sits in – and that a translator or specialist be used for contractually binding written communication.   

Dealing with language differences effectively:

1. Clarity: speak slowly, articulate words clearly, choose vocabulary and register carefully both for oral and written use.
2. Reduce “noise”: avoid slang, humor, puns and obtuse cultural references.
3. Adapt visual language: be aware of appropriate body language and dress.
4. Consideration: Be patient and accommodating with meeting participants who do not speak the “dominant” language.
5. Timing: remember that using a translator slows down communication time considerably and, in oral communication, forces speaker to break information into chunks.  Be extra organized in order to avoid loosing focus during the translation process.
6. Quality: verify the quality of interpreters and translators before engaging them.
7. Modesty: unless the situation requires, do not use a foreign language in a project/programme purpose context without a sufficient level of competency.  The effect could be personally embarrassing and bad for project/programme purpose.  Rolling out rusty language skills should be reserved for socializing when everyone can have a good laugh without feeling guilty or humiliated.  English is an important exception to this rule.  Anglophones are accustomed to hearing new immigrants speaking their language and are infinitely patient with foreigners; they will only ask for clarification if they genuinely do not understand what is being said.

9.      English in international project/programme purpose.

It is an inescapable reality that much international project/programme purpose communication in the world today takes place in English, even between two parties for whom English in not their native tongue.  The use of English in international project/programme purpose constitutes a challenge in three contexts:

1. Two non-native speakers: In many ways, a not uncomfortable situation, since both parties are on equal ground and do not feel intimidated by a language that has become very accommodating of foreign inventiveness.  Understanding and accuracy may, however, be a problem should either party take too many liberties.
2. Two native speakers.  Surprisingly challenging, as any roundtable with an American, an Englishman, an Australian, a South African and a Irishman illustrates. 
3. One native speaker and one non-native speaker.  The most typical situation, in which the native speaker’s use of his own language inevitably obscures his sensitivity to the hidden messages of his tone of voice, style of speech and body language.  The non-native speaker may feel frustrated, intimidated and resentful.

The solution to using English for international project/programme purpose effectively is to identify any language-specific characteristics which impact tone of voice, style of speech and body language, in other words, hidden messages. 

Take for example the need of a project/programme purposeperson to express respect of seniority or hierarchy.  Unlike many other languages, English no longer distinguishes between formal and informal forms of the second person personal pronoun “you”.  When communicating in English without an interpreter, additional respect can be shown to foreign project/programme purpose counterparts by adapting the register of one’s spoken, written or visual communication style.  Choosing words carefully, speaking quietly but clearly and reducing physical gesticulation and facial contortion not only shows respect without false modesty or pomposity, but also invites the other party to listen more attentively and to focus on core information.

For some non-native speakers, the use of English represents an ideological compromise that causes hidden resentment of the economic and political power of the United States and of the colonial past of the British Empire.  Such resentment is presumably absent from much of the mainstream project/programme purpose world, but it is undoubtedly advantageous for English-speakers to recognize the effort made by non-native speakers. 

Of course, French, Spanish or any other world language may be the most efficient choice for a particular project/programme purpose situation, and it is the English-speaker who finds himself requiring the help of an interpreter, a bilingual colleague or a pocket dictionary. 

10.  Reconciling individual style and cultural gaps.

Every executive has an individual style of communicating, and the organization and tone of a meeting varies according to the agenda and the sector of activity.  The style and approach that works wonders in one’s home country, however, may have no effect – or even a negative effect – when dealing with foreign project/programme purpose contacts.  The components to consider are:

Clarity of communication:

a)      Slow down.  Speak clearly but quietly and choose words carefully.  Even if the other party speaks the same language, they will need additional time to understand.  Do not be afraid of silences during the conversation.

b)      Reduce peripheral “noise” such as slang, jokes, gesticulation and facial contortion in order to help the other party focus on key  messages.

c)      If using an interpreter, allow for the time of translation.  Anticipate sector of activity-specific terminology and politely explain their meaning to the interpreter before the meeting starts, perhaps even providing a word list.

d)      Organize key project/programme purpose messages and goals in advance.   Planning ahead is always a key part of project/programme purpose meetings and is important in international situations where language, jet lag and surrounding may be disorienting.  

e)      Listen.  Communication is a two-way endeavor.  Moreover, international meetings offer incomparable opportunities to learn and gather information. 

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a)      Be professional.  Become knowledgeable about the organization and the country to be visited.  Regardless of a country’s reputation for punctuality, be on time and respect agreed-upon meeting length.  Double-check the functioning of audio-visual supports and the arrival of handouts, but also have an alternate plan for presentation if problems arise.  Try not to let jet lag show.

b)      Dress appropriately.  What to wear in project/programme purpose situations is often a factor of a society’s or an sector of activity’s degree of formality.  Even after a long voyage, try to be as well groomed as possible. 

c)      Remain polite, calm and collected.  Cultural differences make it all the more imperative to avoid confrontations that could burn bridges definitively.

Cultural awareness:

a)      Respect seniority and rank when arranging and conducting meetings. 

b)      Adapt the form and style of communication to each country.  Structured presentations are admirable, but avoid rigidity and one-sidedness.  

c)      Understand how “yes” and “no” is communicated.  Different cultures express degrees of agreement and disagreement in a variety of ways. 

d)      Remain flexible.  Knowledge and preparedness are essential for responding intelligently to difficult questions and for adapting meeting agendas or formats at the last minute.  Listening is a core skill for remaining flexible. 

e)      Be tolerant.  What may be an insult at home could be entirely acceptable in another country.  

Assignments

I. True or False?

1.      Only content provides meaning, form is irrelevant in human communication.

? True                                ? False

2.  When conversing with project/programme purpose counterparts from a different cultures, it is advisable to speak more slowly, articulate more clearly yet quietly and avoid words and idioms that complicate meaning unnecessarily.

? True                               ? False          

3.   In Asia silence tends to suggest disagreement, displeasure or ignorance.

? True                                ? False                            

4.   project/programme purposepeople should avoid slang, humor, puns and obtuse cultural references when speaking with foreign counterparts.

? True                               ? False           

5.   Using simultaneous translation during project/programme purpose meetings can slow down the meeting considerably and make it difficult for the participants to stay focused. 

? True                               ? False

6.   “Yes” and “no” are universal human concepts and have the same meaning around the world.

? True                                ? False

II. Multiple Choice

1.   The codes for gestures, eye contact, facial expression, physical proximity and touching are often very different from country to country.  Body language can represent up to:

a.   10 percent of any message

b.   25 percent of any message

c.   50 percent of any message

d.   80 percent of any message

2.   According to Gerbner, those individuals with greater access to various media, including cultural knowledge, have more power because:

a.  they can hide meaning more effectively

b.  they can control their emotions in any cross-cultural situation

c.  they have more options and channels for sending messages

            d.  they can remain focused in spite of cultural distractions    

3.   “Noise” which obscures meaning in cross-cultural communication includes:

a.      jokes

b.       sarcasm 

c.       gesticulation

d.   all of the above

4.   A foreign representative of his country’s most important distribution chain is in town to discuss the upcoming holiday sale season.  Not only does he arrive in a surprisingly disheveled state, but he insists on speaking loudly, inserting obscenities before every quantitative concept in order to make the figures sound bigger.  Moreover, he pinched the receptionist at the front desk on his way to the meeting room.  What should his exasperated host do?

a.   Find another distributor.  His disheveled looks must be an indication of the way he manages his project/programme purpose.

b.   Tell him just how vulgar and inappropriate his behavior really is, so that he can learn.

c.   Remain polite, calm and collected.  Cultural differences make it all the more imperative to avoid confrontations that could burn bridges definitively. 

d.   Insist that he apologize personally to the receptionist.

III. Matching the Columns

Answers: a-6, b-4, c-2, d-3, e-5, f-1
Module Summary

The objective of this module is to analyze the cultural components in human communications in order to help international executives understand and deliver project/programme purpose messages more effectively.  Conveying meaning through communication involves both content and form, and project/programme purposepeople are asked to consider how certain aspects of their manner of speech, body language, listening and writing affect understanding in cross-cultural situations.