Experiential Learning

In the early 1980s, researchers stressed that the heart of all learning lies in the way we process experience. They spoke of learning as a cycle that begins with experience, continues with reflection and later leads to action, which itself becomes a concrete experience for reflection. Perhaps the most important person who contributed to this perspective is David Kolb.

Kolb refined the concept of reflection by dividing it into two separate learning activities, perceiving and processing.  He added another stage, called Abstract Conceptualization, to the learning cycle.  In this stage, learning involves using logic and ideas, rather than feelings to understand problems or situations. Typically, one would rely on systematic planning and develop theories and ideas to solve problems.

Whereas we might ask questions about our experience in terms of previous experiences in the Critical Reflection stage, in the Abstract Conceptualization stage, we try to find answers. We make generalizations, draw conclusions and form hypotheses about the experience. The action phase of learning to Kolb becomes a phase of Active Experimentation. “Learning in this stage takes an active form - experimenting with, influencing or changing situations. You would take a practical approach and be concerned with what really works...”

The Theory of Experiential Learning can be integrated in one's method of training. For example, after introducing a new process or product, the instructor might give the trainees a minute or two of silence to reflect and then another minute or two to discuss.

Kolb went on to develop the Learning Style Inventory to help learners understand their strengths and weaknesses. It measures the learner's preferences in the four stages of learning. Preference of one or more stages over others indicates a preferred learning style.

Kolb's Theory of Learning Styles

Kolb believed that learning styles were based on the following: 1) concrete experience, as in being involved in a new experience; 2) reflective observation, such as watching others or developing observations about own experience; 3) abstract conceptualization, meaning creating theories to explain observations; and, 4) active experimentation, which means using theories to solve problems and make decisions.

Ways to teach these factors include: 1) for the concrete experiencer--offer laboratories, field work, observations or films; 2) for the reflective observer--use logs, journals or brainstorming; 3) for the abstract conceptualizer—use lectures, papers and analogies work well; and, 4) for the active experimenter—offer simulations, case studies and homework

Kolb believed that all people had a learning style based on how they perceive information and how they process it.  The perception continuum goes from abstract conceptualization to concrete experience, and the processing continuum went from reflective observation to active experimentation.  Based on combinations of these two continua, four learning styles were named: Accommodators (concrete experience/active experimenter); Assimilators (abstract conceptualization/reflective observer); Convergers (abstract conceptualization/active experimenter); and, Divergers (concrete experience/reflexive observers).

                                               Concrete Experience                         Abstract Conceptualization
Active Experimenter

Reflective Observer

Training Applications of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory

Accommodators (concrete experience/active experimenter) are motivated by the question, "what would happen if I did this?" They look for significance in the learning experience and consider what they can do, as well as what others have done previously. These learners are good with complexity and are able to see relationships among aspects of a system.  A variety of methods are suitable for this learning style, but anything that encourages independent discovery is probably the most desirable.    They prefer to be active participants in their learning. The instructors working with this type of student might expect devil's advocate type questions, such as "What if?" and "Why not?"

Assimilators (abstract conceptualization/reflective observer) are motivated to answer the question, "what is there to know?" They like accurate, organized delivery of information and they tend to respect the knowledge of the expert. They aren't that comfortable randomly exploring a system and they like to get the 'right' answer to the problem.  Instructional methods that suit Assimilators include: lecture method (or video/audio presentation)--followed by a demonstration, exploration of a subject in a lab, following a prepared tutorial (which they will probably stick to quite closely) and for

which answers should be provided.  These learners are perhaps less 'instructor intensive' than some other learning styles. They will carefully follow prepared exercises, provided a resource person is clearly available and able to answer questions.

Convergers (abstract conceptualization/active experimenter) are motivated to discover the relevancy or "how" of a situation. Understanding detailed information about the system’s operation increases application and usefulness of information. 

     Active instructional methods suit Convergers. For these kinds of learners’ computer-assisted instruction, problem sets or workbooks can be provided for students to explore.

Divergers (concrete experience/reflexive learners) are motivated to discover the relevancy or "why" of a situation. They like to reason from concrete specific information and to explore what a system has to offer and they prefer to have information presented to

them in a detailed, systematic, reasoned manner.  Instructional methods that suit Divergers include lecture method, focusing on specifics such as the strengths, weaknesses and uses of a system and hands-on exploration of a system. 

Knowles’ Adult Learning Theory (Andragogy)

      Knowles has attempted to develop a theory specifically for adult learning. Knowles emphasizes that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decisions and feels that adult learning programs must accommodate this fundamental aspect.

There are four principles of adult learning: 1) adults want to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction; 2) experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities; 3) adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life; and, 4) adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented.

Andragogy makes the following assumptions about the design of learning: (1) adults need to know why they need to learn something (2) adults need to learn experientially, (3) adults approach learning as problem-solving, and (4) adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value.

In practical terms, andragogy means that instruction for adults needs to focus more on the process and less on the content of what is being taught. Strategies such as case studies, role-playing, simulations, and self-evaluation are most useful. Instructors adopt a role as facilitator or resource rather than as lecturer or grader. Andragogy applies to any form of adult learning and has been used extensively in the design of organizational training programs (especially for "soft skill" domains such as management development).

For the trainer, there is a need to explain why specific things are being taught (e.g., certain commands, functions, operations, etc.).  Also, instruction should be task-oriented instead of memorization -- learning activities should be in the context of common tasks to be performed.  In addition, instruction should take into account the wide range of different backgrounds of learners; learning materials and activities should allow for different levels/types of previous experience with computers. Finally, since adults are self-directed, instruction should allow learners to discover things for themselves, providing guidance and help when mistakes are made.

Conditions and Processes of Learning

Another researcher, Gagne, theorizes that there are several different types of learning and that each different type requires different types of instruction. He identifies five major categories of learning: 1) verbal information; 2) intellectual skills; 3) cognitive or reasoning strategies; 4) motor skills; and, 5) attitudes. He proposes that different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for reasoning strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems.  To learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

In addition, his theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding mental processes: (1) gaining attention (reception); (2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy); (3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval); (4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception); (5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding); (6) eliciting performance (responding); (7) providing feedback (reinforcement); (8) assessing performance (retrieval); and, (9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).

These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media.

How would this be put into practice?  Suppose you were teaching a group of new salespeople about your organization’s widget.  First, you would gain their attention by showing a variety of widgets.  Second, you would identify the training’s objective by asking them what a widget was.  You might then recall their prior learning by reviewing their definitions and specifications of various widgets and how they sold them.

After that you could present a stimulus by giving your own definition of selling a widget.  Next, you might guide their learning by showing an example of how to sell your organization’s widget.  Then you would elicit performance by asking them to do different role-plays of selling a widget to different types of beneficiaries.

Step seven is providing feedback on the role-plays.  Then assess performance by providing a sales scorecard (who made the sell and why), as well as telling the ones who didn’t make the sell what they needed to do to secure the order.  Lastly, to enhance the retention and transfer of the learning, you could show pictures of salespeople with the beneficiaries and ask the trainees to identify which ones had made the sale.

Learning and the Senses

Up to now, we have explored learning theories that mainly deal with how we think.  But we also learn from our senses. There really are three main ways of learning: by seeing (visually), listening (auditorially), and by touching (tactilely or kinesthetically).

People who learn through seeing need to see the teacher's body language and facial expression to fully understand the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting at the front of the classroom to avoid visual obstructions (such as other people's heads). They may think in pictures and learn best from visual displays including: diagrams, illustrated textbooks, overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts and handouts.  During a lecture or classroom discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information.

People who learn through listening learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through and listening to what others have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances. Written information may have little meaning until it is heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder. 

People who learn through moving, doing and touching learn best through a hands-on approach, actively exploring the physical world around them. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become distracted by their need for activity and exploration. They like to touch, move objects around, and literally feel their way through the learning process. It is unlikely that a person will learn in only one of these modes, though they will generally have a preference or feel more comfortable learning through one of them.

9.  Learning Styles—Clues and Learning Tips

     Middlesex Community College and Tyler, (Texas) Junior College provides clues and learning tips for each of the three learning styles described in the previous section.  They are as follows:

Bloom’s Hierarchy of Learning

Like Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Bloom’s hierarchy of learning emphasizes that learning is hierarchical with learning (objectives) at the highest level as dependent on the achievement of lower level knowledge and skills first. Bloom's levels from low to high are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

   Knowledge is defined as the remembering of previously learned material. This involves the recall of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete theories. Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain.

   Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material. This may be shown by translating material from one form to another, by interpreting material, and by estimating future trends. These learning outcomes go one step beyond the simple remembering of material.

 Application refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations. This may include the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws and theories. Learning outcomes in this area require a higher level of understanding than those under the comprehension level.

 Analysis refers to the ability to break down material into its component parts so that its structure may be understood. This may include the identification of the parts and the analysis of the relationships between parts. Learning outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level than comprehension and application because they require an understanding of both the content and the structural form of the material.

Synthesis refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This may involve the production of a unique communication, a plan of operations, or a set of abstract relations. Learning outcomes in this area stress creative behaviors, with major emphasis on the formulation of new patterns or structures.

Evaluation is concerned with the ability to judge the value of material for a given purpose. Judgments are to be based on definite internal or external criteria. Learning outcomes in this area are highest in the cognitive hierarchy because they contain elements of all of the other categories, plus conscious value judgments based on clearly defined criteria.

Assignments