Module 10. 9 – Dealing with External Differences

Module Introduction

As more and more people migrate around the world from one country to another, we will find ourselves working with people from other countries and other cultures—and subcultures. Others might have moved to our county and culture from another culture that is similar to our own or very different from ours. We might be posted at a branch of our organization in their country. We might find ourselves using technology to work in an international team composed of people from all around the globe.

We see the world from different perspectives and frames of reference, have different beliefs, values, and norms, probably speak different languages, send and perceive nonverbal cues differently, and have different ways of working and different values about work. Cultural differences are plentiful.

Whatever the reason we find ourselves working side by side with others—whether physically or through technology—we need to know how to effectively communicate with them if we are to reach our goals and objectives and the organization’s goals and objectives. We need to understand our differences and how to deal with them.

We also need to understand our commonalities and how we can use those to communicate effectively as well.

1. Overview

Each of us is born into a culture. This might be the Italian culture or the Japanese culture or the American culture or any of nearly 200 national cultures around the world. We might also be born into a regional subculture. That might be the Tuscan or Sicilian culture in Italy, the Edo or Hokkaido culture in Japan, and the southwest, or eastern, or southern cultures in the United States.

Each of us is often born into an ethnic subculture as well. This might be the French-Canadian culture or the Afro-Cuban culture or the Maori culture of New Zealand or any number of hundreds or thousands of ethnic groupings around the world.

As more and more people migrate around the world from one country to another, we will find ourselves working with people from other countries and other cultures—and subcultures. Others might have moved to our county and culture from another culture that is similar to our or very different from ours. We might be posted at a branch in their country. We might find ourselves using technology to work in an international team composed of people from all around the globe.

We also need to understand our commonalities and how we can use those to communicate effectively as well.

2. Cultural Differences

Our culture provides the basis for how we perceive our environment. We selectively perceive the world based on our individual experiences, our culture background, our education, our religious upbringing, our work experience, and so forth; in sum, we perceive the world from out past experience. From a communication perspective, cultures are made and remade through the words we use to describe our world.

Perhaps the most important aspect of interpretation is the notion that we have reference points for our perceptions. We gauge everything that we perceive against some sort of internal, mental—perceptual—yardstick. These reference points are based on other aspects of our perceptual process, especially our cultural background, which helps create our frames of reference, our motive and our expectations. The reference points, which are generally fashioned by the enculturation process, provide important ways for us to evaluate and give meaning to our perceptions.

The culture and any subculture or subcultures we are born into are also not necessarily the only ones we learn about. For any number of reasons we may encounter a different culture. That encounter might involve moving to another culture or might involve working at the desk next to someone from another culture. Part of that encounter is learning about the other culture.

Two concepts can give us a framework to examine our cultural differences and similarities so that we can more effective communicate with people from other cultures who we find ourselves working with. Geert Hofstede’s Dimensions of Work-Related Values and Edward T. Hall’s notion of High and Low Context cultures and provide a way to understand others and to see how they are similar and how they are different in our endeavor to become more effective communicators.

3. Hofstede’s Dimensions of Work-Related Values

Every culture has a unique way of looking at work and work-related attitudes. Based on data collected in 40 countries, Geert Hofstede suggests that there are four dimensions of work-related values that differ from culture to culture. Those dimensions are:

· Power distance

· Uncertainty avoidance

· Individualism-collectivism

· Masculinity-femininity

Power Distance

Power distance explores the relative power, hierarchical, and status differences between employees and their supervisors or managers. Cultures that have a high power distance are ones where people accept that differences—inequality—between employees and supervisors is more acceptable than in cultures with a low power distance, where people feel there should be less difference and greater equality between them.

People in high power distance cultures feel more comfortable with larger status disparity than people in cultures with low power distance. Cultures with high power distance hold that those in power should not be challenged, the social order should be maintained, and that the use of power is appropriate whenever those in power deem

People in cultures with low power distance scores feel that it is important to minimize differences in social class, to question authority, to limit the impact of the hierarchical structure in organizations, and see the use of power as important only for legitimate reasons.

4. Hofstede’s Dimensions of Work-Related Values (Continued)

Countries that scored high in power distance—those that feel power that distinctions are appropriate—were Malaysia, Guatemala, Panama, Philippines, Mexico, Venezuela, and the Arab countries. Countries that scored low in power distance—those that feel that power distinctions should be minimized—Austria, Israel, Denmark, New Zealand, Ireland, Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Switzerland. Other cultures scored between the two extremes.

There are implications of power distance for dealing with people from other cultures. People from countries with high power distance scores are likely to prefer close supervision from managers who are more directive and less likely to allow for participative decision making. People from countries with low power distance scores are more likely to desire to participate in decisions with managers who will tend to be more collaborative.

As a manager, it is imperative that you understand how your employees view power distinctions. Your communication with them can be very much influenced by how much they feel a manager should allow participation or should direct their work.

Uncertainty Avoidance

The uncertainty avoidance dimension examines people’s openness to change, their willingness to take risks, and how they deal with change, ambiguity and unpredictable situations. Because the future is never certain, we all live with and must cope with some degree of uncertainty and change. This aspect of Hofstede’s category system of work-related values looks at how comfortable people feel about living with uncertainty, doubt, and lack of clarity, and how they try to cope with these feelings.

6. Hofstede’s Dimensions of Work-Related Values (Continued)

Note that these are preferences and not the only ways people can interact. People from countries high in individualism tend to more highly value their own independent accomplishments and decision-making; people from cultures that are low in individualism tend to more highly value working with and conforming to the group. This does not mean that people from high individual cultures cannot work in groups; only that the individual is valued over the group. Nor does it mean that people from low individualism cultures do not have a sense of self; only that they group is valued over the individual.

Cultures that are low in individualism are likely to include Confucian teachings in their value systems. Such Confusion principles might include thrift, perseverance, a sense of shame, following a hierarchy, and generally a sense the importance of tradition and the need to save face.

Low individualism cultures also have a greater distinction between ingroup and outgroup than do high individualism cultures. That is, in low individualism cultures people feel very close and emotionally involved to their own groups, but quite removed and separate from, and even antagonistic toward groups to which they do not belong. People in high individualism cultures do not feel the same kind of separation between ingroups and outgroups. People from these cultures are not as intimately involved with members of their own groups, not as detached from members of groups to which they do not belong.

The United States, Australia, Great Britain, Canada, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Italy all score high on Hofstede’s individualism dimension. Guatemala, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Indonesia, and Pakistan all score low on individualism.

7. Hofstede’s Dimensions of Work-Related Values (Continued)

Masculinity-Femininity

Masculinity-femininity explores whether people are assertive and achievement oriented or whether they are nurturing and socially supportive. It also refers to whether gender roles in the culture are clearly defined or not.

Cultures that scored towards what Hofstede refers to as “masculine” tend to have very well-defined expectations of male and female roles in society. Such cultures value masculinity; they are often called “macho” cultures. They also value distinctions between role behaviors for men and women; women are supposed to be nurturing and socially adept, while mean are supposed to be effective and achievement oriented.

The more “feminine” cultures tend to have less of an expectation that people will take on more traditionally defined gender roles. Such cultures value nurturance for both women and men.

Japan, Austria, Venezuela, Italy, Switzerland, Mexico, Ireland, and Jamaica are cultures that score high on the masculinity end of this dimension. Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Costa Rica, Finland, and Chile all score high on the femininity end of this dimension.

A thorough understanding of Hofstede’s four dimensions of work-related values and where any individual country falls along each dimension can give you a much better understanding and appreciation not only of the communication and managerial styles that are manifested around the world, but in any particular country where you need a greater understanding of that culture. Such an understanding allows you to better communicate with people from a variety of different cultures around the world.

8. Hall’s Cultural Context

We have seen that our cultural frameworks shape what we select out of our environment and pay attention to and what we disregard, ignore, or push to the background. These fames of reference create a context for our perceptions.

Anthropologist Edward T. Hall feels that cultures can be distinguished along a contextual dimension. He believes that different cultures provide different types of information via the contexts through which to perceive the world. He believes that the interpretation of an interaction can be found in the verbal or symbolic aspects of the event or in the context in which the interaction takes place.

The symbolic aspect of an interaction involves the words and language we use in and to talk about the situation. The context involves the setting, especially the nonverbal cues that are part of the interaction. Hall suggests that there are high and low context cultures, depending on whether the information comes from the context—these are high context cultures—or from symbolic interaction—these are low context cultures.

For people in high context cultures interpretation comes primarily from the context of an interaction. Much is left unsaid and people assume their interpretations from the situation and the nonverbal behavior in the situation. People from high context cultures are more attentive to nonverbal cues.

In high context cultures information about how to behave is seldom communicated directly. There is no need to talk about behavioral expectations; they are assumed from the context of the interaction. The rules for behavior in high context cultures are tacit and implicit.

9. Hall’s Cultural Context (Continued)

More is taken for granted and assumed in high context cultures. The context provides clues for appropriate cultural action. Some examples of high context cultures are Japan, Korea, other East Asian cultures, and Mexican and other Latin American cultures.

For people in low context cultures the verbal or symbolic aspect of the interaction carries most of the information we need to interpret an event. In other words people tend to talk about the meaning of the situation or interaction more than making assumptions about them from the nonverbal cues. People from low context cultures are less attentive to the nonverbal cues that give information about how to act and behave in any given situation.

In a low context culture information is more explicit. Ways of behaving are more open and overt. People discuss and talk about what is expected. Although people in low context cultures do still obtain clues from the environment about how to behave, they will ask for information they do not feel that they have.

Less is taken for granted and assumed in low context cultures. Rules are more clearly and overtly explained. Some examples of low context cultures are the United States, Germany, England, and the Scandinavian countries.

Hall feels that high and low context anchor two ends of a continuum along which any culture can be placed. Those toward the ends of the continuum interpret more based on contextual cues in the situation (high context) or on the verbal interaction (low context). Cultures in the middle of the continuum rely a mixture of reliance on verbal and nonverbal cues to interpret interactions and events.

10. Hall’s Cultural Context (Continued)

This does not mean that if you are from a low context culture you do not obtain any cues from the context or that if you are from a high context culture you do not obtain any cues from the verbal interaction. Rather it implies where you primarily obtain your information and interpretations of situations and interactions.

Communication scholars Myron Lustig and Jolene Koester summarize Hall’s concept of high and low context culture as follows:

Characteristics of High Context Cultures:

· Messages are covert and implicit

· Messages are internalized

· Information is primarily nonverbal

· Reactions are reserved

· Distinct differences between ingroups and outgoups

· Strong interpersonal bonds

· Commitment is high

Characteristics of Low Context Cultures:

· Messages are overt and explicit

· Messages are primarily symbolic through words—language

· Details are verbalized

· Reactions are on the surface

· Flexible differences between ingroups and outgoups

· Fragile interpersonal bonds

· Commitment is low

Assignments

Multiple-Choice

1. Our _____ provides the basis for how we perceive our ______.

a. Perception, culture

b. Environment, culture

c. Culture, environment

d. Culture, perception

2. Perhaps the most important aspect of interpretation is the notion that

a. We have reference points for our perceptions

b. Our culture provides our perceptions

c. Our perception is reality

d. None of the above

3. People from cultures that rank __________ feel they are able to cope with situations where things are not known.

a. High in uncertainty avoidance

b. Low in uncertainty avoidance

c. High in individualism

d. None of the above

4. _________ explores how much reliance a person places on the self versus the group in the organization.

a. Power distance

b. Uncertainty avoidance

c. Individualism-Collectivism

d. Masculinity/femininity

5. Cultures that are low in _________ are likely to include Confucian teachings in their value system.

a. Power distance

b. Uncertainty avoidance

c. Collectivism

d. Individualism

6. ________ value nurturance for both men and woman.

a. Masculine cultures

b. Feminine cultures

c. Cultures high on collectivism

d. Cultures low in power distance

7. In __________ cultures, information about how to behave is seldom communicated directly.

a. High context

b. Low context

c. Masculine

d. Feminine

8. People tend to talk about the meaning of the situation or interaction in

a. High context cultures

b. Low context cultures

c. Masculine cultures

d. Feminine cultures

Matching the Columns

1. Power distance		A. Messages are covert and implicit, reactions are reserved, distinct differences between ingroups and outgroups
2. Uncertainty avoidance		B. Explores the relative power, hierarchical and status differences between employees and their supervisors or managers
3. Individualism/collectivism		C. Explores whether people are assertive and achievement oriented or whether they are nurturing and socially supportive
4. Masculinity/femininity		D. Messages are overt and explicit, details are verbalized, fragile interpersonal bonds
5. High context cultures		E. Examines people’s openness to change, their willingness to take risks, and how they deal with change, ambiguity, and unpredictable situations
6. Low context cultures		F. Looks at whether a person prefers to take individual and independent action or prefers conformity and interdependent action

Answers:

1.) B

2.) E

3.) F

4.) C

5.) A

6.) D

Summary

We also need to understand our commonalities and how we can use those to communicate effectively as well.

Test

1. ______ We perceive the world from our hopes for the future.

2. ______ The culture and any subcultures we are born into are usually the only ones we learn about.

3. ______ People in low power distance cultures feel more comfortable with larger status disparity.

4. ______ People from countries with low power distance scores are more likely to desire to participate in decisions with managers who will tend to be more collaborative.

5. ______ People from cultures high in uncertainty avoidance feel greater anxiety and discomfort when situations are ambiguous and uncertain.

6. ______ Cultures with high scores on individualism view reliance on the group as paramount.

7. ______ People from high individual cultures cannot work in groups.

8. ______ High individualism cultures also have a greater distinction between ingroup and outgroup.

9. ______ The more masculine cultures tend to have less of an expectation that people will take on more traditionally defined gender roles.

10. ______ For people in high context cultures, interpretation comes primarily from the context of an interaction.

Answers:

1. F – from our past experiences

2. F – not the only ones

3. F – high power distance

4. T

5. T

6. F – low scores

7. T – can work in groups

8. F – Low individualism cultures

9. F – more feminine cultures

10. T

Gudykunst, W., Yoon, Y., & Nishida, T. (1987). The influence of indivdiualism-collectivism on perceptions of communication in ingroup and outgroup relationships. Communication Monographs, 54, 295-306.

Hofstede, G. (1983). National cultures in four dimension : A research-based theory of cultural differences among nations. International Studies of Management and Organizations, 13, 46-74.

Hofstede, G., & Bond, M. (1984). Hofstede’s culture dimensions. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 15, 417-433.

Power distance – Explores the relative power, hierarchical and status differences between employees and their supervisors or managers

Uncertainty avoidance – Examines people’s openness to change, their willingness to take risks, and how they deal with change, ambiguity, and unpredictable situations

Individualism/collectivism - Looks at whether a person prefers to take individual and independent action or prefers conformity and interdependent action

Masculinity/femininity - Explores whether people are assertive and achievement oriented or whether they are nurturing and socially supportive

Q&A

1. What are the four dimensions of work-related values that differ from culture to culture?

Four dimensions of work-related values that differ from culture to culture are power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism-collectivism, and masculinity/femininity.

Characteristics of a high context culture are messages are covert and implicit, messages are internalized, information is primarily nonverbal, reactions are reserved, distinct differences between ingroups and outgroups, strong interpersonal bonds, and commitment is high.

Characteristics of a low context culture are messages are overt and explicit, messages are primarily symbolic through words, details are verbalized, reactions are on the surface, flexible differences between ingroups and outgroups, fragile interpersonal bonds, and commitment is low.