Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Motivation
Communication and Impact Oriented Programme Management
Integrate with motivating
the Project Team
-
Motivation
Organizing the work Motivating the Project Team
This
section presents the basic components of motivation through a comparison of widely
accepted theories related to individual needs and their consequent outcome-seeking
behaviors. Relevant elements from these theories are used as a springboard for identifying
one’s motivational profile in a work context.
Others
We all know what is best for us. We should eat properly, get enough sleep, exercise
regularly, and so on, and so on, and so on. But in order to actually do something about
it—improve out diet, get enough sleep, start a daily exercise regime—we have to
be motivated.
Knowing what others “should” do and actually getting them to do is what makes a
good manager or leader.
Any
fitness instructor can show you the proper way to do a push up, and count each one as you
do them. They can “manage” your exercise cycles in the same way that any
competent dietician or nutritionist can create a proper meal plan for you. But can they
motivate you to follow it?
They can if they can find whatever it is that we use to motivate ourselves.
On the job, motivation is usually tied to pay,
responsibility, recognition, skill, being part of a team and believing in what
they do, supervision—or freedom from close supervision. So to understand what
motivates specific people, you have to figure out which of these are most
important to them. It is usually a combination of elements.
Some want their work recognized. They need to feel appreciated. Some need to be
part of a team, or doing something they believe in. Others want to be the best,
be in charge, or be able to work on their own. Still others do it only for the
paycheck. Motivating others usually requires much more of an individual than a
group approach.
Good managers know what each of their people do and why they do it in order to
develop ways to motivate them to do it even better.
What is motivation
about? It is about what initiates, guides and sustains behavior over time. Motivation
is the impulse or stimulus that causes people to act.
It is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward goals,
conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.
There are
lots of theories out there to describe this. In this module we will describe some of these
different theories. This will help you get
clearer about how to motivate yourself as well as those who work with/for you. We will start with the classic needs theorists
– Maslow, Alderfer, Herzberg, McGregor and McClelland.
These theorists all agree that:
·
“Needs”
motivate behavior.
·
Some
needs are more important than others.
·
What is
inside us is often more motivating that what is given from the outside.
·
What
motivates you (and how much of it) does not necessarily motivate another.
·
People
have to be ‘in the mood’ to be motivated.
·
Pay is
not the motivator many people think it is.
Maslow explored
individual differences in motivation. He was
interested in why different people are motivated by different things. His answer: “Because we have different
needs.“ Maslow defined needs as some internal state that makes certain outcomes
appear attractive. He differentiated
between lower-order needs -- needs that are satisfied externally, e.g. physiological and
safety needs – and higher-order needs -- Needs that are satisfied internally e.g.
social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.
Diagram 1
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
The five levels of
needs all motivate us at different times and in different situations he theorized. At the first level we may need food, drink,
shelter. These are physiological needs. At the next level we have security needs such as
safety, job stability, benefits, seniority, dental plans.
Moving up the hierarchy we have social needs for affiliation, friendship,
belonging, and team membership. Above that
level are the esteem needs for praise, recognition, status, promotions. And at the top of the hierarchy are our needs for
self-actualization through stretching, growth, learning new things, reaching our full
potential.
So according to
Maslow we are motivated by our needs, most specifically by those needs we have not yet
satisfied starting at the lowest level and moving up through the hierarchy. Only needs not yet satisfied can influence our
behavior.
Maslow’s theory
has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers due to its intuitive
logic and ease of understanding. Research,
however, does not generally validate the theory and Maslow provided no empirical
substantiation.
Maslow’s theory was reworked and researched by Clay Alderfer
and revised into the ERG theory: three groups of core needs called Existence, Relatedness
and Growth.
Diagram 2 – ERG
Theory
Existence needs are
the basic material existence requirements (physiological and safety needs). Relatedness needs are akin to Maslow’s social
and external status needs. Growth needs map well onto Maslow’s internal self-esteem
and actualization needs. However, Alderfer’s
research found that these needs were not in a hierarchy.
More than one need may be operative at the same time and if the
gratification of one need is stifled, the desire to satisfy another need increases
(like a mobile). Variables such as education, family background, and cultural environment
can alter the importance or driving force that a group of needs holds for an individual.
Herzberg researched
the relationship between job performance and job satisfaction. He emphasized what he
calls hygiene factors:...those factors that can make us dissatisfied with our work when
they are not present. Hygiene factors are
dissatisfiers. These dissatisfying hygiene
factors prevent or help people reach a neutral zone when they can be motivated. They are external stimulators that result in short
term movement, but not necessarily towards any desired direction. Herzberg explicitly differentiates dissatisfying
hygiene factors from motivators. Motivators
are those things that make us want to work, that spur us to superior performance. Motivators are inner generators that propel us into
particular directions.
Major dissatisfiers
for us at work are organization policy, relationships, then work conditions. These are all factors we generally perceive as
external and outside our control to influence significantly.
When organizations want to motivate employees it is helpful to manage these
hygiene factors so that they do not get in the way of people’s performance. It is important to note that in the Herzberg
system, hygiene factors are NOT motivators, but they can block job satisfaction and job
performance because they distract and upset employers.
The
motivating factors are related to the employee’s internal sense of making a positive
and significant difference at work. To get
higher job performance and satisfaction it would then be important to make sure employees
can perform at their level of competence, that managers and peers acknowledge employee
performance, that the employee’s work itself is interesting, and that it allows the
individual opportunity to learn and grow.
So according to
Herzberg’s theory motivation is a two-step process: 1st provide the
hygiene factors so workers can concentrate on their work; 2nd provide
motivators (feedback, rewards, recognition, promotions, etc.) to encourage superior
performance. Hygiene theory
says that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are
associated with dissatisfaction.
According
to the Herzberg model “Productive workers are happy workers”, not the other way
around as we sometimes assume.
McGregor examined
assumptions about what motivates workers. He
then put together a set of assumptions that seemed to be linked and contrasted the first
set with a second set of assumptions that seemed to be linked. He labeled one set Theory X and the second set
Theory Y. Remember, McGregor is assuming that
we behave from our beliefs. At the time, the
theory X assumptions were the more common precepts managers were using in organizations. The theory Y assumptions, which are grounded in the
humanist movement, were in start contrast. His
theory also added that our assumptions about people guide our behavior. So managers who believe the ‘Theory X’
set of assumptions are likely to behave in a certain way, and if those who believe the
“Theory Y” set of assumptions are likely to treat their employees differently.
Theory X assumptions:
·
Employees
inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
·
Since
they dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to
achieve goals.
·
Workers
are motivated not by achievement but rather by money, security, fringe benefits.
·
Employees
will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible.
·
Most
workers place security above all other factors associated with work and will display
little ambition.
Guided by this set of
beliefs, Theory X managers will use whatever it takes to meet their and the
organization’s goals, including pressure, control and enticements.
6.
From McGreor’s
Theory Y to Ouchi’s Theory Z
Theory Y assumptions
build upon and add to the work of the humanistic motivation theorists. These assumptions include:
·
Employees
view work as being as natural as rest or play.
·
People
will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives.
·
The
average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility
·
The
ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population and is
not necessarily the sole province of those in management positions.
Guided by these
beliefs, Theory Y managers motivate with participatory decision making, empowerment,
responsible and challenging job assignments, and good group relations.
They also give lots of reinforcing feedback.
In
practice many managers use both sets of assumptions – varying their treatment by
their assessment of the employees they are managing. William
Ouchi, in his study of Japanese organizations, coined the term “Theory Z” to
acknowledge the blending of theory X and theory Y assumptions to produce high quality
goods and services.
7.
McClelland’s
Needs for Achievement, Power, and Affiliation
McClelland’s
perspective was that needs are not innate but learned.
We develop needs based on what is occurring in our environment. People have the potential to behave in a variety of
ways depending upon the strength of their motives. McClelland
identified three needs that motivate behavior: Need Achievement, Need Affiliation, and
Need Power.
Need Achievement is
defined as the need to strive continually to do things better; to excel; to perform well
in relation to a set of standards; a strong concern for excellence. What McClelland discovered was that high achieving
people actually do not reach for the big, hairy, audacious goals. High achievers
perform best when they perceive that they have a 50/50 chance of success. They dislike too high odds or winning when it is
too easy. They like some challenge, not too
much or too little. They go for moderate
goals and string together a long list of moderate achievements. The sum of those moderate achievements makes the
high quantity result.
We use
McClelland’s achievement research frequently to encourage people to make SMART goals
– Specific, Measurable, Ambitious, Reachable, and Time Bound. Achieving moderate smart goals increases
people’s sense of efficacy and motivates them to higher performance in the long run.
8.
McClelland’s
Need Power and Need Affiliation
Need Power is the
desire to have impact and influence over others. People
with high need for power want to make others behave in a way that they would not have
behaved otherwise. High Need Power people
like to be ‘in charge’ and often enjoy effective and status-oriented
situations.
Need
Affiliation is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. This need received the least attention by
researchers. We do know that people with a
high need for affiliation prefer cooperative situations to effective ones, and desire
relationships that involve a high degree of mutual understanding. Until Daniel Goldman’s work on the value of
emotional intelligence at work, this aspect of motivation received little attention from
researchers.
People asked
McClelland frequently what was the motive profile of leaders, managers, etc. Based on his research the need for power with
moderate need for achievement and low need affiliation, tends to be closely related to
managerial success. Leaders frequently
demonstrated similar motive profiles. An engineer’s profile was low need for power,
moderate need for affiliation, and high need for achievement. Two cautions are warranted here, however.
First, we determine
motivating needs through projective tests. These
are tests where people write stories to pictures that are then coded for specific needs by
specially trained psychologists. It is very
difficult to predict needs reliably just by observing your and others’ behaviors. Secondly, these profiles were based on research
done over two decades ago. A lot has changed
in the world since then. It is possible, and
researchers are investigating, how these profiles might change.
9.
Skinner’s
Reinforcement Theory and Operant Conditioning
B.F.
Skinner was interested in ways our behavior is learned as a result of its consequences
– both negative and positive. He came
up with Reinforcement Theory, which postulates that behavior is a function of its
consequences. Reinforcement conditions
behavior. Behavior is environmentally
caused, not internally driven. Like the
rats in the famous Skinnerian maze, human behavior is that which is rewarded or
reinforced. Reinforced behavior repeats
itself. Skinner’s is a simple theory
with an important implication. Since most of
us behave in ways that we find rewarding to motivate ourselves, all we have to do is
identify the rewards we value, and then manage to get those rewards on a regular basis. To motivate others, we must identify the rewards
they value, and give those rewards as reinforcement for desired performance.
Skinner also looked
at Operant Conditioning. With operant
conditioning desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. As a result people learn to behave to get
something they want or to avoid something they do not want. The Skinnerian motivation
model would then suggest that to motivate we must:
1.
Define the desired behavior
2. Identify the desired reward/reinforcement
3a. Offer the
reinforcement/reward for the desired behavior
3b. If the person does
something undesirable, that behavior can be punished to extinguish it. The desired behavior must then be taught,
encouraged, and then rewarded to reinforce its desirability.
4. Deliver the reward every time behavior is
performed.
It is important to
remember that managerial attention is perceived as a powerful reward. Be sure to give attention to positive performance,
not just to mistakes. Also, rewards tend to
work better than punishment. If you
punish, without giving direction, assistance, and reinforcement to desired behavior, you
are not likely to get the positive behavior you desire using this method.
This
behavior modification method and its variations are still widely used, despite sometimes
being seen as manipulative.
10.
Other Motivation Theories
Equity
Theory. Individuals are concerned not only with the
absolute amount of the rewards for their efforts but also with the relationship of this
amount to what comparable others receive. Based
on equity theory ‘we always make it even in the end’. What this means is that we will adjust our beliefs
and/or our efforts to come to subjective parity with relevant others. Some of the behaviors we use to reach equity when
we think we are not receiving as much as we should in comparison to others include:
·
Reducing our
efforts,
·
Increasing our
quantity of output while reducing quality,
·
Seeing ourselves as
working harder than others,
·
Seeing other’s
work or situations as less desirable than ours, and
·
Quitting.
The key lesson from
the equity theorists about motivation is that we compare ourselves to others in similar
situations and look for ways to do a fair day’s work for a fair day’s pay.
Expectancy Theory. The strength of a tendency to
act in a certain way depends on the strength of the expectation that the act will be
followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
What this means in practice is that someone will
be more motivated to work hard if…
·
She or he believes that their effort will make a positive difference and,
·
Lead to a good outcome such as a positive performance appraisal, a bonus, a
salary increase, or a promotion,
· And that those positive results will satisfy that person’s personal goals.
There are three key relationships here to pay attention to in using this theory. First is the idea that if the person tries hard they will be able to perform – the effort-output relationship. Second is the view that doing the job well will get them some recognition or reinforcement – the performance-reward relationship. Third is the likelihood that the reward will be something that person values – the rewards-personal goals relationship.
True False:
1)
According to Maslow, lower order needs
are the wants we need to satisfy first.
True
False
2)
In Maslow’s Hierarchy theory only
the needs not yet satisfied can influence behavior.
True
False
3)
The needs hierarchy developed by Maslow
is the same in all cultures.
True
False
4)
According to McClelland, high need
achievers perform best when they perceive that they have a 50/50 chance of success.
True
False
5)
Expectancy theory describes the
adjustment one does to their beliefs and efforts in an attempt to have some subjective
parity with relevant others.
True
False
6)
In general, rewards motivate better
than punishments.
True
False
7)
Motivation is the willingness to exert
high levels of effort toward goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy
some individual need.
True
False
8)
Maslow defined needs as external
drivers towards particular outcomes.
True
False
9)
Alderfer’s research found that
needs were not in a hierarchy -- more than one
need may be operative at the same time and if the gratification of one need is stifled,
the desire to satisfy another need increases.
True
False
10)
According to Herzberg, dissatisfying hygiene factors
prevent or help people reach a neutral zone when they can be motivated.
True
False
11)
Herzberg’s motivators
are external stimulators that result in short term movement, but not necessarily towards
any desired direction.
True
False
12)
In practice managers use
either Theory X or Theory Y assumptions.
True
False
13)
Reinforcement Theory
postulates that behavior is a function of its consequences and that reinforcement
conditions behavior.
True
False
14)
According to BF Skinner,
all behavior is internally driven.
True
False
15)
Skinner’s research
demonstrated that human behavior repeats itself if and when it is rewarded or reinforced.
True
False
16)
If Skinner is correct, and
most of us behave in ways that we find rewarding, then all we need to do to motivate
ourselves, is identify the rewards we value, and get those rewards on a regular basis.
True
False
17)
In motivation, the golden
rule works -- to motivate others, we give them the same rewards we value.
True
False
Multiple-Choice:
1)
All of the following are characteristic
of motivation except…
a.
What motivates you may not be the same
as what motivates me.
b.
Some needs are higher than others.
c.
Needs motivate behavior.
d.
What is given from outside is more
motivating than what is intrinsically motivating for us.
2)
Which of the following is NOT one of
the needs that motivate behavior according to McClelland?
a.
Need for power
b.
Need for affiliation
c.
Need for satisfaction
d.
Need for achievement
3)
All of the following terms are
characteristic of the acronym S-M-A-R-T goals except…
a.
Responsible
b.
Time bound
c.
Measurable
d.
Achievable
4)
According to Skinnerian reinforcement
theory, which of the following are steps in motivating a behavior?
a.
Define the desired behavior and
reinforce only desired behaviors.
b.
Reward all behaviors – desired and
ineffective.
c.
Pay attention to mistakes only.
d.
Deliver the reward the first time the
behavior is performed, and then never reward the behavior again.
Matching the Columns:
Please match the following assumption
statements to the corresponding McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y.
(Answers are put
in the left column)
|
Y |
The average person can
learn to accept responsibility.
|
|
X |
Employees
inherently dislike work and whenever possible they will
attempt to avoid it. |
|
X |
Employees will
avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible. |
|
Y |
People will
exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives.
|
|
X |
Most workers place
security above all other factors associated with work and will display little ambition.
|
|
Y |
Employees view work as
being as natural as rest or play.
|
Summary - Motivation Theories
All the
motivation theories agree:
·
Human behavior can
be influenced and changed
·
Individuals have
different needs, wants and values
·
Understanding
individual differences is they key to effectively motivating people
When it is all said
and done it is also helpful to remember that research has taught us
·
Rewards work better
than punishments
·
Intrinsic (internal
motivators) are generally more effective than extrinsic (external) rewards
·
The timing of
rewards is important to their effectiveness
·
Behavior that
results in both rewards and punishments produces conflict
·
Avoidance of
negative outcomes and their associated feelings and perceptions are important determinants
of behavior
·
Rewards are
perceived in comparison to others.
Maslow, A.H.
-A theory of human motivation. Psychological
Review, 50, 370-96
Alderfer, C.P.
-Existence, Relatedness and Growth:
Human Needs in Organizational
Settings.
Coleman, D. (1995).
- Emotional Intelligence: Why it can
matter more than IQ.
Coleman, D. (1998).
- Working With Emotional
Intelligence.
Herzberg, F.
-"One More Time: How
Do You Motivate Employees?" Harvard project/programme purpose
Review (Sept./Oct.
1987)
McGregor, D.
-The Human Side of organization. (
1960.
McClelland,
D. C.
- Human Motivation
(Glenview,
IL: Scott, Foresman, 1985)
Skinner, B.F.
- About Behaviorism (1974)
Vroom, V.
-
Work
and Motivation (1964)
Expectancy theory: Postulates that the strength of a tendency to act
in a certain way depends on the strength of the expectation that the act will be followed
by a given outcome, and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
Hygiene factors:
External stimulators that result in short-term movement, but not necessarily toward any
desired direction; those factors (e.g., organization policy, relationships, work conditions)
that cause dissatisfaction with work when they are not present.
Motivation: The
impulse or stimulus that causes people to act; it initiates, guides, and sustains behavior
over time.
Needs: Motivate
behavior; the origin (innate vs. learned) and nature of needs are described differently by
different theorists.
Operant
conditioning: A process of rewarding or punishing a voluntary
behavior (e.g., making coffee) to either reinforce or extinguish it.
Reinforcement
theory: Postulates that
behavior is a function of its consequences, that reinforcement conditions behavior, and
that behavior is environmentally determined, not internally driven.
Learning Objectives:
·
Gaining an overview
of theories addressing the origins and nature of motivation and behavior
·
Applying these
theories to self and work context
Question
1. I have some employees that seem to do the
absolute minimum to stay employed. What can I
do to motivate them?
Answer: You describe an all to common situation – people who “quit and stay” in their jobs. They quit doing any meaningful work but they stay at the job taking up a seat. They do the minimum necessary to get by to stay employed but are not motivated to do any more than that minimum. Consider using Expectancy Theory to understand how to motivate such employees. Look at each of the three relationships to see how to change things so they would be more motivated. For instance you could explore the effort-output relationship by asking the question “if this person works really hard and does their best, will they succeed in doing the work?” If the answer is “no” then there is a skill deficiency that needs to be corrected. This person needs training, coaching, feedback, and then to be released from their job if they are incapable of learning it and performing it. If the answer is yes, look at one of the other relationships. Will they be recognised for their achievement? Do they believe they will be recognized or see some benefit from their achievements? These questions relate to the performance-reward relationship. If the answer is no to these questions then perhaps you are not linking performance and recognition. Or, you are not managing the perception of the link of performance to recognition. Provide specific feedback on accomplishments. The third relationship is the reward will be related to the employee’s personal goals. Ask these employees whether they have other private concerns that make it difficult to do the work at this time? Perhaps they need some work flexibility – so there might be mutual adjustment.
Question
2: Are there cultural differences associated with these motivation theories?
Answer: Yes,
there are. All of the research described in this section was done primarily in the United
States by social scientists. Later replication
of some of the work made it evident that there were cultural biases in the research. A published example is the difference in
Maslow’s needs hierarchy when comparing the U.S. model to the Chinese model. In the Chinese model the first level need was
belonging, then physiological, then safety, and the final level of self-actualization was
in service to society rather than to individual growth.
Question
3: How do I keep myself motivated? I’ve been trying to change certain behaviors
and just do not seem to be able to keep myself going.
Answer: The most important thing to remember is to focus on
the positive behaviors that give you energy – Herzberg’s generators. We often define things we want to change by what we
want to ‘stop’ doing, rather than what we want to start doing. It is important to define the new behavior you wish
to start, and usually helpful for the behavior to be framed as something positive that
enhances your growth or helps you achieve something you value. Positive energy directs and sustains goal directed
behavior. Negative, dissatisfying, or
punishing energy stops you from doing something but does not tell you what you want to do
next. Second, it is also important to change
one significant behavior at t time. It takes
about 3 weeks to learn and integrated a new behavior.
Do not overload yourself by trying to do too many or too big changes too
quickly. Third, if you are motivated to change
a personal habit or behavior, get help from a friend, someone who cares, who will remind
you of your goal, who will remember that you changed, and who will celebrate your
achievement with you.
End of Module